The "Tao of Heaven" (Tian Tao 天道) is a central concept discussed in several of your sources, particularly those focusing on early Chinese thought like the _I Ching_ and the writings attributed to Confucius, Mencius, Xunzi, and Mozi, as well as Taoist texts like the _Zhuangzi_. This concept encompasses the nature, will, and functioning of Heaven (Tian 天) as it relates to the natural world and to humanity. In many early Chinese texts, Heaven is depicted as a significant extrahuman agent, sometimes with anthropomorphic qualities. It is seen as a High God (Shangdi 上帝 or Di 帝) with will, intelligence, and moral providence, who creates and cares for the people. The "Mandate of Heaven" (tianming 天命) is a crucial political doctrine that posits that Heaven grants rulers the right to govern based on their virtue and moral standing. Confucius appears to have believed in universal moral principles binding even on the gods, reflecting a connection to a Heavenly standard of morality. The _I Ching_ explicitly explores the "Tao of Heaven". In the gua Qian (Initiating), which represents Heaven, the commentary describes the "healthiest movement of Heaven". Ancient Chinese believed that the "Tao of Heaven was also the Tao of Humanity," especially for the emperor, who was considered the "Son of Heaven" and responsible for leading people to practice the Tao of Heaven. Qian is described as the "source of all beings" and the regulator of all creations under Heaven. Its movement is characterized by "change and transformation" so that beings obtain their true nature, and a "union of great harmony is preserved". Confucius's commentary praises the "magnificence of the principle and the qualities of Heaven," such as yuan (sprouting), heng (growing), li (blooming), and zhen (bearing fruit). The "Tao of the Initiating" is seen as "high above all beings," representing the "perfect time and position". The _I Ching_ also contrasts the "Tao of Heaven" with the "Tao of Earth" and the "Tao of Humanity". The "Tao of Heaven" is associated with initiation, creation, heat, and light (yang energy), while the "Tao of Earth" is characterized by submission, responding, flexibility, devotion, and humility (yin energy). Humanity is seen as needing to be submissive and responsive to Heaven's will. The interaction and unity of these Tao(s) are essential. For instance, the gua Tai (Advance) symbolizes the union of Heaven and Earth and the importance of union among people, reflecting the "Tao of Heaven and Earth". The gua Great Harvest (Da You 大有) also relates to the ascending attributes of both Fire and Heaven, symbolizing an auspicious situation where blessings descend from Heaven to a humble and sincere leader. The concept of humbleness is explicitly linked to the "Tao of Heaven" in the gua Humbleness (Qian 謙). The commentary states that it is the "Tao of Heaven to send its energy down Shining upon all beings" and the "Tao of Heaven to decrease the full And increase the humble". Similarly, the "Tao of spirit beings" is to harm the full and bless the humble, and the "Tao of humans" is to dislike the full and love the humble. The gua Watching (Guan 觀) emphasizes observing the "divine Tao of Heaven," noting that the "four seasons proceed without error" because of it, and thus, the sage adopts this Tao to instruct and gain submission from all under Heaven. Adorning (Bi 賁) is also described as the "adornment of Heaven," with its brightness helping people act according to the proper time and situation, which is seen as the "adornment of humanity". The Xunzi, Mozi, and Zhuangzi also engage with the concept of Heaven, though with differing perspectives. The Xunzi, in the Tianlun, describes the "behaviour of Heaven" as having constancy, focusing on what Heaven is unable to do rather than what it does directly, suggesting a more naturalistic interpretation where Heaven responds to order and disorder. However, it also uses terms like "Heavenly Sovereign" and "Heavenly Governance". The Mozi's "Will of Heaven" chapter portrays Heaven as an agent that desires righteousness and detests unrighteousness, associating Heaven with governance and establishing a hierarchy with Heaven above the emperor. Heaven is depicted as having emotions like love, anger, and happiness, as well as qualities like wisdom, nobility, and righteousness. The Zhuangzi presents Heaven in parallel to Earth, sometimes tying Heaven to the concept of virtue and the ideal state of a ruler, and also discussing the "Way of Heaven" and the "Harmony of Heaven". Some scholars, like Hall and Ames, argue for a gradual "depersonalization of tian" over time in early China, moving from a purposeful deity to an impersonal law or natural force. Yuri Pines also supports this narrative, claiming a secularizing trend. However, Kelly James Clark challenges this view, arguing that representations of Heaven remain complex and do not show a clear temporal evolution towards depersonalization. Texts like the _Analects_ often depict Heaven as the source and model of goodness, with Confucius attributing his own virtue to Heaven. Heaven is portrayed as a superknower that cannot be deceived and as the ultimate moral authority. The relationship between the Tao and Heaven is complex. While "Tao" can refer to the general "Way" of the universe, the "Tao of Heaven" specifically relates to how Heaven manifests its nature and influences the world. In some contexts, Heaven can be seen as the embodiment or expression of a particular aspect of the Tao, especially concerning morality and cosmic order. The _Tao Te Ching_ presents the Tao as something that produces the world through "not-making" (wu-wei), distinct from a creator God who "makes" (wei). The Tao is spontaneous and operates without a conscious plan in the human sense. While some might equate the monistic "One" of Taoism with "God" in a general sense, the Tao itself is often described as nameless and beyond conceptual understanding. Ultimately, the "Tao of Heaven" in early Chinese thought represents a multifaceted concept involving a cosmic order, a moral standard, and a principle of natural functioning, often intertwined with the idea of divine will and the appropriate way for humanity, especially rulers, to live in accordance with this Heavenly order. The _I Ching_ provides a particularly rich exploration of this concept through its hexagrams and commentaries.