For centuries, people just picked up Plutarch's writings without needing much of an introduction – that's how directly appealing he was. His works give us a vividly detailed look back at Greek and Roman history, but they also tell us a great deal about the intellectual and social scene in Roman Greece during his own time, roughly the first and second centuries CE. Judging by the sheer amount he wrote, it's clear he spent a lifetime not just putting pen to paper, but also devouring books and deep thinking. **Getting to Know the Man** First off, who was this Plutarch guy? He was from a small town called Chaeronea in Boeotia, mainland Greece. While we don't know his exact birth and death dates, he was likely born between 45 and 50 CE. We know he was a student at Delphi around 66 CE, and he later became a priest of Apollo at the sanctuary there. He had strong ties to Delphi and his hometown of Chaeronea, a place with a rich, though sometimes difficult, history. Chaeronea was the site of famous battles, including Philip of Macedon's victory over the Greeks in 338 BCE and Sulla's defeat of Mithridates' general in 86 BCE. Plutarch himself even mentions his great-grandfather Nicarchus being forced by Marcus Antonius's lieutenant to carry corn like a slave from Chaeronea to the coast – a task only stopped by news of Antony's defeat at Actium. But Plutarch wasn't just a local figure; he was also a Roman citizen and had connections that reached far beyond Boeotia. He visited both Italy and Rome and likely lived there for a time, giving lectures on philosophy and other topics. It seems he was drawn to Rome partly through friends, like the esteemed Sossius Senecio, a consul under Emperor Trajan, to whom Plutarch later dedicated works. Despite his time in Rome, Plutarch admitted he didn't have much time to master Latin due to public business, and he seems to have written his _Life of Demosthenes_, at least, after returning to Chaeronea. Interestingly, we can catch glimpses of Plutarch the man, not just the writer, through his works. He often mentions his relatives and friends, sometimes even featuring them as characters in his essays. His great-grandfather Nicarchus, grandfather Lamprias, father Autobulus, wife Timoxena, brothers Lamprias and Timon, and children all appear. While some of this information comes from dialogues like _Quaestiones convivales_ (_Table Talk_), which might be somewhat stylized, essays like his _Consolatio_ to his wife after their daughter's death or _Coniugalia praecepta_ (_Advice to bride and groom_) seem to capture genuine personal emotions. We even hear an anecdote about his father giving him advice on how to report a mission, emphasizing modesty and collaboration. This personal touch is part of why he remains so approachable nearly two thousand years later – he talks about things we can relate to. **His Incredible Literary Landscape: The Lives and The Moralia** When most people hear the name "Plutarch," they think of his biographical accounts of famous figures. His _Parallel Lives_ are quite well-known, and for good reason. These are paired biographies, usually featuring one Greek and one Roman figure, often followed by a section comparing them (_synkrisis_). They are described as engaging and deeply complex, aiming to help readers improve themselves as historians, philosophers, and citizens. Now, Plutarch didn't invent biography, but his biographies achieved truly unparalleled recognition over the centuries. There were other ancient biographers like Cornelius Nepos and Suetonius, but the sources suggest Plutarch's project was on a different scale and more unified than Nepos' sketches, and his format and tone were distinct from Suetonius's. The way Plutarch combines flowing narrative with a comparative, gently moralistic approach makes his work unique. He really solidified the canon of "great men" from Greece and Rome for posterity. While his stated goal was to look at the psychological and ethical issues behind historical actions, he became a sort of gatekeeper of ancient heroism. He wrote about notable women too, although his perspective on gender is noted as not entirely even-handed. But wait, there's more! While the _Parallel Lives_ are his most famous works, Plutarch also left us the _Moralia_. This is a broad term for a collection of over seventy-five essays covering an astonishing variety of topics. The range is incredibly diverse in content, format, and setting. In the _Moralia_, you can find practical advice on behavior in different social situations, philosophical dialogues, discussions of cultural and antiquarian subjects (like in _Quaestiones convivales_), collections of famous sayings, rhetorical pieces, and serious philosophical explanations. He offers advice on everything from how to behave at funerals and dinner parties to political gatherings and religious ceremonies. You can learn how to spot a flatterer, whether many friends are good, why one poet is better than another, the chicken-or-egg question, why eating meat might be immoral, what Egyptian mythology means, what's wrong with Herodotus, and how souls are judged after death. Talk about a fascinating mix! We know from a list called the Lamprias Catalog that even more of Plutarch's works are lost to us, like a biography of Caligula or a treatise on Euripides. This just adds to the picture of his immense learning and versatility. **Why Read Plutarch? His Purpose and Approach** So, why should we read Plutarch? The sources point to a few key reasons. He himself saw his writing, particularly the Lives, as a way of using history as a mirror to examine and shape his own life based on the virtues of others. It was like having these historical figures as house-guests, exploring their greatness and using their actions for self-improvement. His works are deeply interested in morality – in what makes a good and honorable life and how to live one. Almost everything he wrote aims to "improve" the reader. He presents himself as a guide for correct living, blending practical advice with philosophical analysis. Even in works that don't seem overtly philosophical, morality is at their heart. A major technique he uses is presenting _examples_ (_paradeigmata_) from history, literature, or everyday life, as models to follow or avoid. The _Parallel Lives_ are the ultimate expression of this, using historical figures as exemplars. He doesn't always explain who these figures are or what they did, assuming his readers already know them, and uses brief incidents to support his points. He was profoundly influenced by Plato, especially Platonic ideas about the soul, which underpins his moral thinking. Philosophy wasn't just an academic subject for him; it was a practical tool for living and for political life. He was interested in applying philosophical principles to the real problems faced by his wealthy and powerful readers. He also aimed to be a congenial guide, sensitive to human weaknesses, rather than a preachy one. Perhaps most importantly, Plutarch wanted readers to learn to think for themselves about moral issues, rather than just waiting to be told what to do. He assumed his readers would be alert and independent thinkers. **Plutarch's Philosophical Spirit** Philosophy is central to Plutarch's work. He wrote technical philosophical treatises, manuals on caring for the soul, and philosophical dialogues, and his biographies offer "case studies" for philosophical reflection. While he used to be seen as eclectic, it's now clear he was an outspoken Platonist, specifically a Middle Platonist. His vast knowledge across history, literature, science, cosmology, medicine, and religion was filtered through a coherent philosophical framework, heavily influenced by Plato's dialogues. It can be tricky figuring out Plutarch's definitive stance on every issue because his works feature different voices and he doesn't always seem perfectly consistent. However, digging deeper reveals a coherent body of thought. He's seen as imitating Plato in this regard, a thinker described as having varied expression but unified doctrines. He even suggests that it's "most clever to philosophize without appearing to talk philosophy". His philosophical ideas are woven into the very fabric of his writing, even in unexpected places. For example, in the _Life of Galba_, he uses the idea of a bad horse to describe the military out of control, and in the _Life of Antony_, Antony's passion for Cleopatra is like a disobedient horse. Philosophy was also a social activity for Plutarch, something done in conversation with friends. His dialogues capture vivid philosophical discussions on nature, customs, religion, theology, and philosophy itself. These dialogues show the importance of virtues needed for good discussion, like being collaborative in the search for truth, even when people don't agree on everything. Works like _De Pythiae oraculis_ or _Quaestiones convivales_ show him at his best as an author and philosopher, displaying the good-natured humor and humanity he was known for. **Navigating History, Character, and Culture** Plutarch was fascinated by history, particularly classical Greece from the Persian Wars to Alexander the Great. This era provided him with a rich cultural heritage that he deeply admired and felt pride in as a Greek. He was a citizen of Athens, where he studied, and valued the city for its books and learned conversations. Yet, he also saw the need to accept the reality of Roman power, noting that Greeks had as much liberty as the Romans granted. He believed Greece's contributions were its political experience, cultural wisdom from literature, and the ethical-political teachings of philosophers, especially Plato. Unlike many Greek writers of his time who focused solely on the classical period, Plutarch's interests extended into the Hellenistic age. He wrote Lives of figures like Aratus and included Hellenistic kings and those who fought against Rome in his _Parallel Lives_. His vision encompassed Greeks from all periods and saw a shared pattern of political behavior connecting the past and present, Greeks and Romans. His _Parallel Lives_, pairing Greek and Roman figures, were his way of presenting this dual heritage, understanding each in light of the other. For him, the Greek heritage was foundational, while the Roman was something external he sought to integrate. Key themes in his treatment of classical Greek figures include the struggle for liberty, the qualities needed in a leader, and the destructive nature of ambitious striving. Plutarch didn't just recount historical facts; he shaped narratives to highlight character and personality. He aimed to entertain, instruct, and morally challenge his readers. He would often omit or skim over parts of historical narratives, focusing on moments or anecdotes that revealed a subject's temperament or motives. This turns narrative into _paradigm_, shifting the focus from military campaigns and continuity to character and interpretation. He famously stated in the preface to the _Alexander_ that "often an insignificant act, word, or joke displays character better than bloody battles, massed armies, and sieges of cities". He expected his audience to be familiar with classical texts and appreciated his reworking of standard accounts. He wasn't afraid to interrogate traditional narratives, probing motives and behavior, even in admired figures like Pericles. While he questioned aspects of the heroic past, he also vibrantly reaffirmed its greatness. The classical past was a "huge reservoir" of history, art, and traditions, providing examples of virtue for inspiration. But he cautioned that these examples needed careful examination to remove the "debris" of human ambition, competition, greed, and desire. He believed the best qualities of the past could only be regained through the "constant exercise of prudent reason and controlled passion". He dared his readers to take on this challenge. Plutarch's perspective is described as Hellenocentric; Roman statesmen and culture are often measured against Greek concepts and standards. While not anti-Roman, his outlook is shaped by his background as a Greek aristocrat, a Platonist, and a priest of Delphi. His program for his society was one where the present should be shaped by the heritage of Greek culture. However, it's also noted that the Lives, despite their strong Greek elements, might also be influenced by Roman practices and stereotypes, perhaps due to the paired structure of the biographies. He did admire Roman figures like Aemilius Paulus for their attachment to ancestral values and religious tradition, though he also highlighted Paulus's eagerness to include Greek education (_paideia_) for his sons. **The Grand Tapestry: The Macrotext** Here's a fascinating idea: Plutarch's entire body of work can be viewed as a fundamentally unified "macrotext". This concept encourages us to look for recurring themes, cross-references, and echoes across the _Lives_ and _Moralia_. For example, Plutarch often recycles the same quotations or anecdotes in different contexts, which makes sense if you see his work as a large, interconnected whole. There are many synergies between the _Lives_ and the _Moralia_, with recurrent propositions emerging across his writings. These include the importance of philosophically oriented education (_paideia_), the desirability of balancing rational and nonrational parts of the soul and the state, and warnings against disruptive drives like competitive ambition and anger. This macrotextual view, however, also brings to light interpretive challenges and potential inconsistencies. Is he a serious philosopher or more of a provider of commonsensical moral guidance? Is his moral judgment prescriptive or open-ended? Does he focus on individual biographical stories or larger historical patterns? A good approach is not to demand absolute consistency or focus solely on discrepancies, but rather to embrace the layered, complex nature of his writing. **A Master of Language and Connection** Even though Plutarch believed content was far more important than style, he was undeniably a master of formal prose. He could vary his style depending on the genre, sometimes even within a single work. Two strong characteristics of his writing are abundance and richness of imagery and allusion. He wasn't an "Atticist" aiming to perfectly imitate fourth-century BCE Greek. Instead, he built a "mosaic," constantly weaving in allusions and quotations. His vocabulary was immense, including many words not found in classical Greek. His writings often sparkle with vivid imagery and powerful metaphors, which have been studied extensively. Even in a philosophical work like _Quomodo adolescens poetas audire debeat_, he uses elaborate language alongside moralistic reflection. **Sharing a Meal and a Conversation** Plutarch's depictions of the symposium (dinner party discussions) are particularly vivid and interesting, revealing the diversity of his roles – philosopher, priest, civic official, socialite, friend, Greek, and Roman. They offer a unique glimpse into the intellectual unity of his work. Dining and drinking occasions were common in the Roman Empire, and Plutarch's writings negotiate the different practices he encountered, sometimes reflecting tensions between Greek aristocratic ideals and the luxuries of Roman _convivia_. His work _Quaestiones convivales_ is a key example, presenting itself as transcripts of dinner party conversations. These discussions are rich with details about food, entertainment (which sometimes clashed with intellectual talk), and emotions like happiness or joy at reuniting with friends. The work highlights the cosmopolitan nature of his world, where people traveled widely, and Greeks and Romans interacted fruitfully, sharing goods and ideas in a spirit of generosity. _Quaestiones convivales_ is seen as a cultural testimony of great significance, almost a monument to the intellectual vibrancy of his era. It lacks a strict organizational scheme, reflecting the associative nature of conversation and ancient educational practices that valued memory and variety. This structure keeps the reader engaged, allowing for pleasant surprises and shifts in focus. **A Legacy That Endures** One of the most exciting things about Plutarch is his lasting influence. His writings have touched almost every aspect of Western civilization. From Shakespeare's plays and Montaigne's essays to the very creation of the United States constitution, his impact is felt. In the Byzantine Empire, intellectuals deeply appreciated Plutarch. They weren't just preserving his texts (though we are grateful for that!); they were attracted to his outlook, which they found compatible with Christian morality. Figures like Photios and Psellos read him, quoted him, and adapted his ideas for their own purposes. Psellos, for instance, structured his historical work, the _Chronographia_, around the lives of rulers, using Plutarchan principles. In the Renaissance, the enthusiasm for Plutarch was immense. The first complete translations appeared in the mid-16th century. His works were seen as indispensable for education, combining moral excellence, practical experience, and learning. Humanists like Coluccio Salutati saw his _Lives_ as perfectly aligning with the goals of _studia humanitatis_, teaching through examples, conveying moral lessons irresistibly, and shaping character. It's argued that his educational zeal was enough to secure his lasting popularity, making his work a "bible" of Western civilization. He was even one of the three books used to educate the creature in Mary Shelley's _Frankenstein_. Montaigne, the famous French essayist, was a zealous reader of Plutarch, especially the _Moralia_. He loved Plutarch's style, describing it as a stimulating mosaic, well-suited to a reader who couldn't sustain prolonged mental effort. He valued the compact quality and density of content in the _Moralia_, seeing it as providing infinite material for future writers. Plutarch's _Lives_ also sparked debates among French historians about his use of anecdotes, his accuracy, psychological analysis, and the neutrality of his comparisons. Some, like Jean Bodin, acknowledged his suitability for writing lives of illustrious people, even suggesting his work was a good model for contemporary princes, though Bodin did criticize him for including seemingly unbelievable details. **Questions to Keep Exploring** As you delve further, you might find yourself pondering some of the questions that scholars still debate. How exactly should we understand the relationship between his Greek and Roman subjects? How does his Platonic philosophy shape his historical accounts? How do his practical ethical concerns connect with his more abstract philosophical ideas? Plutarch is a complex and rewarding author. Whether you pick up a volume of the _Lives_ to meet the heroes of the past or dip into the _Moralia_ for a lively discussion on an unexpected topic, you're joining a conversation that's been going on for centuries. Enjoy the journey, and see what insights you gain about the ancient world, its great figures, and maybe even yourself!