The "Jewish God Question" is a multifaceted and enduring topic, encompassing the myriad ways in which Jewish thinkers have engaged with the concept of God, the nature of the Jewish people, the significance of the Land of Israel, and the relationship between them. As Andrew Pessin notes in the introduction to "The Jewish God Question," the very term "Israel" embodies this struggle, originating as the name given to Jacob after he "strove with beings divine". Thus, "Israel" refers not only to a person, a people, a land, and a state, but also to the ongoing process of wrestling with and seeking to understand the divine. This inherent questioning and debate are central to Jewish intellectual tradition, exemplified by the Talmud's acceptance of diverse opinions as "the words of the living God". The history of the Jewish God Question is a long and rich one, evolving through different periods and influenced by various cultural and philosophical contexts. While much of the early intellectual activity focused on constructing foundational religious texts like the Torah and the Talmud, systematic philosophical reflection on God began to emerge with figures like Philo (c. 20 BCE–c. 50 CE). Philo sought to reconcile Jewish scriptures with the principles of Greek philosophy, a trend that continued to shape Jewish thought for centuries. Key questions during this period included whether God's existence could be proven philosophically, the nature of God's attributes and unity, and the concept of creation. Judah Halevi (c. 1075–1141), however, emphasized that Judaism is based on a historical event – God's interaction with the Israelites – rather than solely on philosophical knowledge. He argued that the direct experience of the Exodus and the giving of the Law at Mount Sinai underscored the special relationship and obligations between God and the Jewish people. Halevi also noted that while the existence of a creator could be discerned through the study of the natural world, God's specific actions for the Israelites provided a more direct and accessible knowledge of God for the masses. Abraham Ibn Daud (1110–80) took a different approach, asserting that scripture itself indicates a philosophical foundation for Judaism, pointing to Deuteronomy 4:6 where other nations recognize the wisdom of divine commandments. He believed that the religious principles revealed in Judaism are ultimately consistent with Aristotelian philosophical principles. Maimonides (1138–1204) further engaged with Aristotelian philosophy, attempting to provide rational accounts of Jewish doctrines. However, thinkers like De Leon, representing the mystical tradition of Kabbalah, criticized the overly rational approach, emphasizing a more dynamic cosmos where God actively battles dark forces and involves humanity in these struggles. Kabbalists saw deeper, mystical meanings within the Torah and the Hebrew language itself. Albo argued for a simplification of Jewish principles to just three: the existence of God, reward and punishment, and revelation, suggesting that debates about God's nature and other theological matters were secondary. As the modern era dawned in the seventeenth century, the Jewish God Question took on "new and sharper forms" reflecting the surrounding Western cultures. Questions about the role of religion in public life, the feasibility of belief in God in a modern world dominated by reason and enlightenment, and the very definition of Jewish identity became central. The possibility of assimilating into broader society or returning to the ancient homeland emerged as significant issues. The nineteenth century witnessed intense grappling with Jewish identity, particularly among German Jews seeking integration into society. The "Wissenschaft des Judentums" (Science of Judaism) movement aimed to apply scholarly methods to Jewish texts and culture to extract its enduring spirit and ensure its survival in modern forms. However, Samson Raphael Hirsch (1808–88), a key figure in Orthodox Judaism, vehemently opposed Reform Judaism's attempts to modernize the religion, seeing it as a rejection of authentic, divinely ordained tradition. Nachman Krochmal (1785–1840) sought to reconcile Judaism with modern thought in his "Guide for the Perplexed of Our Time," arguing that the Jewish people uniquely express the universal Divine Spirit through their particular history and religion. Abraham Geiger (1810–74), a leader of Reform Judaism, emphasized the metaphysical content of Judaism over its rituals, seeing it as a force for morality and progress. The rise of modern political Zionism in the late 19th century, spearheaded by Theodor Herzl, added another crucial dimension to the Jewish God Question. Herzl believed that the establishment of a Jewish state was the only solution to pervasive European antisemitism. This sparked debates about whether Jews were primarily a people or adherents of a religion, the necessity and form of a return to the Land of Israel, and the theological implications of taking action to end the exile rather than waiting for the Messiah. Ahad Ha’am (Asher Ginsberg) argued that the focus should be on solving the "problem of Jewishness" rather than just the "problem of the Jews," emphasizing the need for a spiritual and cultural center in Palestine to revitalize Jewish identity and morality. He reinterpreted core Jewish concepts like God and chosenness in ways accessible to the modern mind, emphasizing the moral imperative and the self-chosen dedication of the Jewish people to a universal ethical ideal. The 20th century brought cataclysmic events like the Holocaust and the establishment of the State of Israel, forcing profound reconsiderations of the Jewish God Question. Eliezer Berkovits (1908–92) grappled with the silence of God during the Holocaust, suggesting that divine hiddenness is necessary for human freedom, even the freedom to commit great evil, and that affirmations of faith remain meaningful despite such tragedy. Hans Jonas (1903–93) argued that the enormity of Auschwitz challenged traditional explanations of evil as divine punishment, questioning how an omnipotent and perfectly good God could allow such suffering. Yeshayahu Leibowitz (1903–94) criticized the anthropocentric tendencies in religion, emphasizing that Judaism is primarily about serving God for God's sake, not for human benefit, and warned against the "idolatry of the 1967 lands," advocating for a separation of religion and politics. Emmanuel Levinas (1906–95) offered a unique perspective, suggesting that the experience of God's presence occurs through our moral obligations to other persons, famously stating that at Mount Sinai, the Israelites answered, "We will do and we will understand," highlighting the primacy of ethics over epistemology. He saw monotheism and Judaism as ethical structures, with the pursuit of justice and morality being God's own work in the world. Abraham Joshua Heschel (1907–72) emphasized the experiential dimension of authentic religious practice, highlighting the feeling of divine concern as central to Judaism. Contemporary Jewish thought continues to grapple with these historical and theological questions in light of modern challenges such as secularism, egalitarianism, and the ongoing complexities of Israeli identity. Michael Wyschogrod (1928–2015) argued for freeing Judaism from external philosophical influences and re-emphasizing God's particular love for the Jewish people as the foundation for universal love. Samuel Lebens (b. 1983) reflects on the enduring threads of "encounter" and "argument" in Jewish thought, expressing concern that academic study sometimes overshadows the living engagement with these ideas. In conclusion, the Jewish God Question is not a monolithic inquiry with definitive answers, but rather an ongoing, dynamic, and often contentious engagement with fundamental questions of existence, meaning, and obligation in relation to the divine and to one another. It is a testament to the intellectual vitality and resilience of Jewish tradition, constantly adapting and reinterpreting itself in the face of historical change and philosophical inquiry. The diversity of perspectives and the enduring nature of these questions suggest that the Jewish God Question will continue to evolve and remain a central aspect of Jewish thought for generations to come.