**Equality** Equality is a complex concept discussed in several contexts within the sources. It is presented both as a political ideal and as a presupposition underlying certain ethical actions, particularly nonviolence. Historically, the idea of equality holds a significant place, notably in the US context, tracing back to principles like "all men are created equal," which has been interpreted as an equality of rights rather than biological sameness. However, this historical grounding also acknowledges its initial limitation to certain men. In democratic theory, equality can be understood as the presupposition that each person is equally capable of creating a life for themselves and has equal intrinsic worth. Importantly, the sources clarify that this understanding of equality does not mean everyone deserves the same thing or equal respect regardless of their actions. Instead, it centers on recognizing the inherent value individuals possess simply by being alive as human beings. Within theories of justice, such as Rawls's "justice as fairness," equality is a fundamental element. The framework assumes parties in the original position are equal, possessing the same rights in the procedure for choosing principles. This equality is based on their similarity as moral persons capable of having a conception of their good and a sense of justice. The principles of justice themselves contain strongly egalitarian elements, requiring equal basic rights for all. Democratic equality, in this framework, is achieved by combining the principle of fair equality of opportunity with the difference principle. This approach appraises the basic structure of society from the position of equal citizenship, defined by the rights and liberties guaranteed by the principles of equal liberty and fair equality of opportunity. When these principles are met, all individuals are considered equal citizens and hold this position. The difference principle allows for social and economic inequalities only if they benefit everyone, particularly the least advantaged, ensuring that those who gain more do so on terms justifiable to those who have gained the least. This interpretation views the distribution of natural abilities as a collective asset, benefiting the more fortunate only in ways that help those who have lost out. It interprets treating persons as ends in themselves by agreeing to forgo gains that do not contribute to everyone's expectations. The sources distinguish between different conceptions of equality. One refers to the distribution of goods (addressed by the second principle of justice), which may inadvertently lead to differences in status. Another, more fundamental conception, refers to the respect owed to persons regardless of their social position (defined by the first principle and duties like mutual respect). The priority given to the first principle, emphasizing equal basic liberties, is seen as crucial for maintaining equal status and preventing the humiliation and loss of self-esteem associated with political or civic inequality. Public affirmation of equal citizenship secures self-respect, relegating material differences to a subordinate place while ensuring equality in the social bases of respect. In the context of nonviolence, equality is presented as a central value, alongside dignity. Nonviolence is described as presupposing the equality of everyone involved – participants, adversaries, and bystanders. This presupposition is enacted through nonviolent action itself, regardless of whether the individuals consciously believe in or know they are acting upon this principle. Drawing on Rancière, acting on the presupposition of equality is framed not as demanding recognition from an adversary (which would maintain a position of inferiority) but as performing the act of being an equal. This can manifest as a moral superiority without presupposing superiority, simply by acting based on the equality of every speaking being. Democracy, in this view, is seen less as a matter of distributive justice or institutional structure and more as an egalitarian action performed by people acting on the presupposition of their equality, challenging hierarchical "police orders". Some perspectives, however, challenge the notion of equality having intrinsic moral value. Frankfurt argues that while he supports efforts to reduce inequality for pragmatic reasons (like facilitating other desirable aims), equality as such has no inherent moral worth. He notes that demands for equality, focused on having the same as others, differ significantly from demands for respect and can distract individuals from their own authentic ambitions rooted in their particular circumstances. The relationship between equality and freedom is also explored, often framed as a tension, particularly concerning the role of the state in achieving egalitarian outcomes versus protecting individual liberties. However, libertarian socialist thought suggests that freedom and equality are logically consistent and interdependent, arguing that equality must include political equality (liberty to participate in decisions) and freedom is meaningless without sufficient resources. This view relies on a conception of human nature as rational, mutually interdependent, creative, and social beings. The Greek concept of isonomy provides another historical perspective on political equality, viewing it as an artificial condition created by the laws of the polis among individuals who are not naturally equal, emphasizing that freedom existed only among these political equals. **Respect** Respect is another fundamental concept, often linked with dignity and seen as crucial for ethical interaction and a just society. It is presented as an affective complement to empathy, with empathy creating the space in which ethics and morality are located. Respect can be understood in different ways. Appraisal respect involves apprehending another person as a self-responsible agent. Recognition respect, on the other hand, involves apprehending the dignity of the other. This recognition respect builds upon empathy's ability to disclose the irreducible difference of the other. While sympathy manifests our similarity, respect is rooted in and manifests our irreducible difference. Both are intertwined and rooted in empathy, with respect creating the logical space for morality and sympathy fostering communal relations within that space. Treating a person with respect means engaging with them based exclusively on the aspects of their character or circumstances that are actually relevant to the matter at hand. This implies impartiality and the avoidance of arbitrariness. While this might sometimes align with treating people equally, the aims can diverge: respect aims at outcomes specifically matched to individual particularities, whereas equality aims at everyone having the same as others. Frankfurt suggests that confusing these two concepts contributes to exaggerating the moral importance of egalitarianism. Respect for persons is described as an objective obligatory end that should govern one's desires and guide end-setting. It is a value that holds governing authority over desires. To respect another as a moral person involves trying to understand their perspective, presenting reasons for constraints on their conduct that they could accept, and showing courtesy as an expression of awareness of their feelings and aspirations. The duty of mutual respect is vital in a society, as everyone benefits from the support it provides for their sense of self-worth. In nonviolence, respect for dignity is a central value. This involves both respecting the dignity inherent in the adversary and acting in a dignified manner oneself. The dignity to be respected encompasses the capacity for a human life, including engaging in projects and relationships, awareness of death, and having biological and psychological needs. Nonviolence respects the fact of this dignity, even when actions are coercive and interfere with projects. Nonviolence also expresses the self-respect of the participants; standing up to an adversary nonviolently, while respecting the adversary's dignity, is a gesture of self-respect that treats both self and other as equal. Undergoing violence without retribution is seen as a sign of strength, expressing self-esteem without diminishing the adversary's humanity. Respect cannot be achieved by power; it requires mediators who help individuals appreciate one another. Seeking self-respect can involve helping others respect one another. From a different perspective, it is argued that conduct, not birth or inherent being, is what entitles one to respect. Practical examples of showing respect through behavior include bowing to a superior or maintaining silence when confronted by an equal to enhance one's own esteem. The connection between interpersonal peace and intrapersonal peace highlights that inner well-being and the ability to interact nonviolently are difficult without a context of respect and freedom from discrimination. A claim of basic dignity is seen in the desire for fundamental well-being. A just society makes its fundamental decisions based on mutual respect among its members. Respect for persons is presented as an inviolability founded on justice that societal welfare cannot override, giving persons a value described as being "beyond all price". **The Relationship between Equality and Respect** Several sources highlight the close relationship between equality and respect, often viewing them as distinct but deeply intertwined values, particularly in the context of nonviolence and justice. In nonviolence, dignity (respect) and equality are considered two central, bound-together values. Everyone is seen as having dignity, and having it equally. Nonviolent action treats others so as to respect their dignity and presuppose their equality. Recognizing the dignity of others and acting in a dignified manner treats them as equally valuable. The concept of equality of dignity is linked to the capacity for a human life and the idea of equal intelligence in constructing meaningful lives. While dignity is traditionally seen as an ethical concept and equality as a political one, nonviolence does not strictly adhere to this distinction, viewing both as ethical and political values operating on a "bottom-up" model. Rawls's theory of justice explicitly connects the two by identifying a fundamental type of equality as the respect owed to persons irrespective of their social position. This form of equality is defined by the first principle of justice, which guarantees equal basic liberties, and natural duties like mutual respect. The priority of this principle ensures equality in the social bases of respect. A just society making decisions based on mutual respect embodies this connection. Treating persons as ends in themselves, as interpreted by the difference principle, also reflects a form of respect that is tied to egalitarian outcomes. However, as noted by Frankfurt, treating people equally and treating them with respect are not the same. Equality is about comparison and shares, while respect is personal and based on relevant particularities. While their requirements may sometimes coincide, their underlying logic and direction can differ. Pursuing equality based on comparison to others can distract from self-affirmation that comes from acting with respect for one's own condition. The "logic of equivalence" arising from democratic movements challenges hierarchical inequality by construing subjects as equals, leading to a discourse centered on rights, liberty, and equality. Acting on the presupposition of equality, as described in nonviolence, is performing equality rather than requesting it, demonstrating a moral stance rooted in the belief that all persons, despite differences, share fundamental common traits that make discrimination morally repugnant. In summary, the sources present equality and respect as deeply connected but distinct concepts. Respect focuses on the inherent worth and dignity of the individual and how they should be treated based on their relevant particularities, while equality concerns the standing of individuals relative to others, particularly regarding rights, opportunities, and the distribution of social goods or the presupposition of equal worth in interaction. Theories of justice and practices like nonviolence aim to integrate both values, often prioritizing the respect for individuals as free and equal beings as a foundation for social and political arrangements.