Our story begins with a figure of myth and early history, Theseus. Before Athens was the unified city we often think of, Attica was a collection of dispersed settlements and tribes, sometimes even clashing with each other. Theseus, after proving his strength and good sense, and being recognized as the son of Aegeus, the king of Athens, embarked on a truly significant project. He set about gathering all the inhabitants of Attica and uniting them into a single citizenry centered in one city. He visited villages and tribes, gaining their consent. How did he manage this? Well, the sources tell us that the poor and lower classes were happy with his ideas. To win over the more powerful, he made a rather appealing promise: the new constitution wouldn't involve a king. Instead, it would be a pure commonwealth, with Theseus serving only as the general of the army and the guardian of the laws. Everyone else would enjoy perfect freedom and equality. It's said that he convinced some with these arguments, while others, knowing his power and courage, decided it was better to agree than be forced. As part of this unification, he got rid of the individual meeting places and magistracies of the separate townships. He built one central place for all of them, the common prytaneum and senate house, located where the present acropolis stands. He named this central city Athens and established festivals that were shared by all the people, like the Panathenaic festival and a festival for resident aliens. By laying down his sovereign power as he promised, he created a framework for the new constitution. Some even say he was the first to lean towards democracy and give up the title of king. This big change seems to have been supported by divine guidance, as he consulted the oracle at Delphi and received a response hinting at the many "cities" (or perhaps, unified settlements) within his domain, and that the city (like a bladder) couldn't drown. This oracle was even prophesied by the Sibyl later. Theseus didn't just stop at unification; he also aimed to increase the population by inviting strangers to come and share equal privileges, perhaps foreshadowing Athens' later openness. The proclamation "Come hither all ye peoples" is attributed to him in this context. However, he also brought order to this influx by dividing the people into three distinct classes: the Eupatridae (nobles), Geomori (farmers), and Demiurgi (artisans). He gave the nobles specific roles like overseeing religious rites, providing magistrates, and interpreting laws. But, he placed them on an equal footing with the others, believing that the nobles would naturally excel in dignity, farmers in usefulness, and artisans in numbers. This sounds like an interesting blend of social structure and a step towards a broader base of participation! It makes you wonder how strictly these lines were drawn in practice and how they evolved over time. Fast forward a bit, and Athenian politics faced a period of intense crisis. The sources describe a state deeply divided by factions and on the brink of revolution. One major cause was extreme economic inequality – some citizens were excessively poor, while others were enormously wealthy. Many people were in debt to a few rich individuals. Debtors either had to pay a sixth of their farm's profit to their creditors (called Hektemori, or servants), or they had borrowed against themselves and become the slaves of their creditors, used domestically or even sold abroad. The situation was so dire that some were even forced to sell their own children! Politically, the city was split into as many factions as there were geographical regions: the Diakrii (mountaineers) were pro-democracy, the Pedioei (plainsmen) favored oligarchy, and the Parali (those living along the seashore) preferred a middle-ground constitution, effectively preventing either extreme from taking over. The most spirited among the poor felt they couldn't endure this oppression any longer and encouraged each other to find a leader who would protect them, free enslaved debtors, redistribute land, and completely reshape the constitution. Into this turmoil stepped Solon. He was a man of great reputation, and crucially, he seemed to stand apart from the vices of either faction. He didn't participate in the oppressive actions of the rich, and he had enough wealth himself not to be desperate like the poor. The most sensible men in Athens begged him to come forward and resolve their disputes. He was chosen as archon, an arbitrator and lawgiver. The rich trusted him because he had property, and the poor trusted him because he was considered a good man. A saying of his, "equality does not breed strife," was popular at the time, but interestingly, both sides interpreted it to suit themselves: the rich thought it meant distributing property based on merit, while the poor thought it meant distributing equally. With hopes high, leaders urged Solon to seize supreme power and become king. Even moderate politicians, seeing the difficulty of reforming the state through debate, were willing for such a wise and honest man to take sole charge. An oracle even seemed to endorse this, saying "Take thou the helm, the vessel guide, Athens will rally to thy side". His close friends pressed him, arguing that he was shrinking only from the _name_ of despotism, and his virtues would make him a legitimate ruler. They even pointed to examples like Tunnondas in Euboea and Pittakus in Mitylene who had been chosen as leaders. But Solon was unshakeable. He famously told his friends that monarchy is a pleasant place, but there is no way out of it. His own poems confirm his reluctance to become a despot. Despite his efforts, after Solon left Athens (perhaps for travel, as hinted at by the encounter with Croesus and Cyrus), the factional strife returned. Lykurgus led the Pediaei (oligarchs), Megakles led the Parali (middle party), and Peisistratus led the Diakrii (democrats), joined by the poorer classes who disliked the rich. The city still had Solon's laws but desired change. Peisistratus, described as crafty and pleasant, a protector of the poor, and seemingly moderate, managed to deceive the people by affecting qualities he didn't possess, presenting himself as cautious and law-abiding. Solon, though old, saw through him and tried to deter him, recognizing that without his ambition for power, Peisistratus could be an excellent citizen. However, Peisistratus used a trick, wounding himself and claiming his enemies attacked him, to get a bodyguard. He was allowed to keep guards, eventually seizing the Acropolis and becoming despot. Solon, despite his age and lack of support, publicly reproached the Athenians for their folly, stating that while it would have been easier to prevent tyranny earlier, it was now more glorious to cut it down. He armed himself and took a stand, declaring he had done all he could for his country and its laws. He later wrote poems criticizing the Athenians. The narrative then shifts to Themistokles, a man whose family was not particularly distinguished. His father was middle-class, and his mother was of foreign birth, possibly Thracian or Carian. Athenians born of foreign mothers were sometimes considered "base-born" and had certain restrictions, like assembling at the Kynosarges gymnasium. Themistokles, however, cleverly got noble youths to join him there, challenging these restrictions. He was described as capricious and unsteady in childhood, with great potential for both good and evil, but his natural abilities were immense. His teacher, Mnesiphilus, wasn't a formal philosopher but focused on "political sharp practice and expedients of statesmanship," lessons he was said to have inherited from Solon. Themistokles was fiercely ambitious from a young age, determined to be the leading man in the state. His rise involved clashing with established figures, notably Aristeides, whose honest and cautious nature contrasted sharply with Themistokles' drive for new, startling reforms. Their rivalry was intense and started early. Themistokles was instrumental in a major shift in Athenian strategy: using the revenues from the silver mines at Laurium, which would normally have been distributed among the citizens, to build ships. He persuaded the Athenians to do this by focusing on the immediate threat of the Aeginetans, who had a large navy, rather than the distant Persians. This decision led to the construction of a hundred triremes. This move fundamentally changed Athens. Themistokles deliberately turned the Athenians towards the sea, understanding that their land forces were weak against neighbours, but a powerful fleet could defend against barbarians and dominate Greece. This led to the observation that he turned Athenians from "stationary soldiers" into "roving sailors," and the criticism that he replaced the shield and spear with the oar and rower's bench. Whatever one might think of the constitutional aspects, the sources argue that this fleet was the salvation of Greece against Xerxes. Themistokles even had to bribe a popular orator, Epikydes, to withdraw his candidacy for general because he feared for the state under such a leader. When the Persians invaded, Themistokles advocated for leaving the city and meeting the enemy at sea. Despite initial opposition, and a retreat from the Vale of Tempe, the Athenians were persuaded. He was sent to guard the straits at Artemisium. When the Spartans' general, Eurybiades, was given overall command, the Athenians, who provided the most ships, were hesitant to submit. But Themistokles, seeing the danger, conceded the claim to command and soothed the Athenians' pride, telling them their bravery would win them supremacy. His actions in this crisis are seen by the sources as deserving the credit for saving Greece. Facing the advancing Persian forces, Themistokles used signs, wonders, and oracles to convince the populace to abandon Athens and take to the ships. He interpreted the desertion of the sacred snake as the goddess Athena leaving the city and leading them to the sea. He argued that the oracle's "wooden walls" meant ships, and that Salamis was called "divine" because it would bring good fortune. He proposed a decree to leave the city to the goddess and embark all able-bodied men on warships, while saving women, children, and slaves. At the crucial moment before the Battle of Salamis, with the Greek fleet hesitant and wanting to retreat to the Isthmus, Themistokles employed both powerful rhetoric and cunning. He famously stood up to Eurybiades, urging him to stay and fight at Salamis, even telling him to "Strike, but hear me" when threatened. He shamed other Greeks who wanted to abandon the fight, declaring that the Athenians had abandoned buildings but still possessed the greatest city in their two hundred ships. To force the issue, he secretly sent a messenger to the Persian king, informing him that the Greeks intended to flee and that he should attack them in the straits, making escape impossible. This stratagem worked; the Persians moved to block the escape routes, trapping the Greek fleet and forcing them to fight at Salamis. The resulting victory was decisive. Themistokles' political life was marked by great success and eventually, downfall. He had a sharp wit and was known for his memorable sayings. He believed his own talents were essential, once comparing himself to a feast day necessary for the next day's enjoyment. He was perceived as arrogant and overbearing. He incurred unpopularity, perhaps due to his confidence and actions, leading to his ostracism. Ostracism, the sources explain, was not necessarily a punishment for wrongdoing but a way for the Athenians to curb men they saw as too powerful or exceptional for their democracy, a vent for envious feelings. After his banishment, Themistokles faced accusations of treason, particularly linking him to the Spartan Pausanias. Though he refused to join Pausanias's treasonable plans, he didn't reveal them, leading to suspicion after Pausanias's death. His enemies at Athens pursued charges. He defended himself in letters, arguing his ambition was to rule, not to be a slave to the Persians, and that he wouldn't betray Greece. Despite his arguments, the Athenians sent men to seize him to be tried by all of Greece. Fleeing, Themistokles eventually sought refuge with the Persian king, Xerxes (or possibly his son Artaxerxes). He had to adopt Persian customs, including prostrating himself before the king. He presented himself as someone who could increase the king's glory. The king was reportedly overjoyed to have him, seeing him as a valuable asset. Themistokles impressed the king with his intelligence and eventually learned Persian to speak directly with him, gaining unprecedented honour for a foreigner. He was given control of several cities to provide for his needs. Despite this privileged position, when the Persian king prepared to attack Greece later, Themistokles, unwilling to fight against his homeland and perhaps recognizing the difficulty of the task against skilled generals like Kimon, took his own life rather than lead the invasion. This act solidified his complex legacy. Now, let's turn our attention to Perikles, another colossal figure in Athenian politics. Sources describe him as taking the popular side, aligning himself with the poor against the rich. This was apparently contrary to his aristocratic feelings, but he did it, it's said, to avoid suspicion of aiming for despotism and to build a power base against his rivals like Kimon. He dramatically changed his lifestyle, focusing entirely on public affairs, avoiding social gatherings to maintain a solemn and majestic public image. He reserved his appearances before the people for important occasions, letting others handle smaller matters. Perikles's political ascent involved challenging established power structures. Unable to compete with the wealth and generosity of Kimon, who used his private fortune for public benefit (like feeding the poor and opening his orchards), Perikles turned to distributing public funds. This strategy, reportedly suggested by Damonides, involved using money for public spectacles, payments for jury duty and other offices, and general largesses. This quickly won him popular support. He used this support to weaken the Council of the Areopagus, an ancient body with considerable power. As he had never held the offices (Archon, etc.) that led to membership in the Areopagus, he wasn't part of it. He had Ephialtes bring forward a bill to reduce its judicial powers. He also successfully pushed for Kimon's ostracism, portraying him as pro-Spartan and anti-democratic, despite Kimon's military successes and contributions to Athens. With Kimon gone and the Areopagus's power curtailed (a move for which Ephialtes was later assassinated), the sources state that Perikles became the most powerful man in the state. Even with Kimon removed, the nobility sought to counterbalance Perikles's influence, setting up Thucydides, a relative of Kimon and a skilled politician, as his rival. Thucydides organized the nobles into a distinct group to concentrate their political strength, sharpening the division between the "Many" (Perikles's party) and the "Few" (Thucydides's party). Perikles continued to cultivate popular favor through public spectacles, festivals, and processions, as well as sending out triremes annually for naval training and pay, and establishing colonies to relieve the state of agitators, help the poor, and keep allies in check. Perikles's most visible and controversial undertaking was the grand building program in Athens. This adorned the city, delighted the people, and astonished the world, serving as lasting proof of Greece's ancient power. His opponents fiercely criticized this, particularly the use of funds from the league treasury, which had been moved from Delos to Athens. They argued it was outrageous to use money collected for war against the Persians to beautify Athens "as if it were a vain woman". Perikles defended this by arguing that as long as Athens defended the allies, who contributed only money, Athens had the right to spend that money as it saw fit after meeting military needs. He also stressed that the building projects created widespread employment for artisans and mechanics, ensuring that those who stayed home also benefited from public funds, just like soldiers and sailors. Once his opposition in the city was neutralized (Thucydides was also ostracized, although not explicitly stated here, it is implied by the lack of opposition and Perikles' sole control), Perikles gained sole control over Athens' affairs, both domestic and foreign. The sources describe this period as a transformation from a "loose and licentious democracy" into a stricter, "aristocratic, or rather monarchical, form of government," guided honourably by Perikles for the public good. He is depicted as guiding the people, sometimes persuading them, sometimes forcing them, like a physician dealing with a complex illness. His power is attributed not just to his oratory but to his perceived incorruptibility and indifference to money. Even though he led Athens to unprecedented wealth and power, he did not increase his own inherited estate. Perikles faced challenges near the end of his life, including prosecutions against those close to him, like Aspasia (accused of impiety and impropriety) and the philosopher Anaxagoras (accused of disbelief in religion). These attacks reflected growing discontent and perhaps were aimed at him. Facing unpopularity, particularly after issues related to Pheidias, Perikles is said to have intensified the move towards war with the Peloponnesians, hoping that a major crisis would force the state to rely on his leadership again. When the Peloponnesians invaded Attica, led by the Spartan king Archidamus, Perikles adopted a strategy of not engaging them in a land battle, prioritizing the safety of the citizens over the devastation of the countryside. He argued that trees grow back, but lost men are irreplaceable. Despite pressure, complaints, and insults calling him a coward, he refused to call an assembly for fear they would force him to fight. He acted like a ship captain in a storm, securing the city and sticking to his plan despite the fear and grumbling of the people. After suffering heavy losses from a plague and becoming unpopular again (and being fined), the Athenians eventually realized his value. Having tried other leaders and found them wanting, the city longed for Perikles and asked him to return. Though dejected, he was persuaded to resume leadership. In a poignant moment, he asked the Athenians to overturn a law he himself had introduced years before – the law stating only those born of Athenian parents could be citizens. He had introduced this law when he had legitimate children, but now, having lost them, he wished for his illegitimate son (by Aspasia, likely) to be granted citizenship so his family line wouldn't die out. The Athenians, moved by his misfortunes, granted this request, despite the law having been strictly enforced previously, even resulting in thousands being sold into slavery. This illustrates the complex interplay of personal life, law, and public sentiment in Athenian politics. The loss of Perikles was profoundly felt. Those who had resented his power came to appreciate his moderation and the stability he provided. His seemingly autocratic rule was seen in retrospect as the saving of the state, suppressing corruption and wickedness that broke out after his death. Finally, we encounter Alkibiades, a young man of noble birth and immense natural abilities, though also prone to extravagance and debauchery. He entered politics at a very young age and immediately surpassed most existing statesmen. His main rivals were the older and respected Nikias, and Phaeax, a young man of good family but less effective in public speaking. Alkibiades was known for his eloquence and charm. He possessed great invention and resourcefulness, though he sometimes hesitated when speaking, searching for the perfect words. Alkibiades' political career was dramatic and controversial. He was deeply involved in the power struggles of his time. He played a key role in maneuvering the ostracism against Hyperbolus, preventing one of the three main rivals (Nikias, Phaeax, or himself) from being exiled. He was fiercely competitive, particularly irritated by the respect shown to Nikias after the peace treaty with Sparta, known as the "Peace of Nikias". Despite initially having ties with the Lacedaemonians, Alkibiades sought to undermine Nikias and the peace. He secretly encouraged the Argives to turn against Sparta and look to Athens for an alliance. Using the pretext of the Lacedaemonians' alliance with the Boeotians and their dismantling of Panaktus, he stirred up Athenian anger against Nikias, accusing him of mishandling negotiations and favoring Sparta. In a truly cunning move, when Spartan ambassadors arrived to negotiate with full powers, Alkibiades met with them privately. He advised them _not_ to tell the Athenian assembly they had full powers, warning that the people would be demanding and exploit this. He promised to help them if they followed his advice. The ambassadors trusted him, admired his supposed intelligence, and broke off their dealings with Nikias. The next day, when Alkibiades publicly asked them if they were plenipotentiaries and they said no, he unleashed a furious attack, portraying them as faithless liars. This enraged the people and left Nikias utterly confused, effectively destroying the Spartan alliance and leading to an Athenian alliance with Argos, Elis, and Mantinea. This manoeuvre, though criticized for its deceit, was politically significant, creating agitation in Peloponnesus and shifting the conflict away from Athens. Alkibiades also advocated for expanding Athenian power both on land and sea. He even reminded the young men of their oath in the Temple of Agraulos, implying they should claim all cultivated lands as Attica's boundary. However, his public image was complicated by his luxurious lifestyle and arrogant behaviour, which unsettled older Athenians who saw it as leaning towards despotism. The comic poets captured the mixed feelings towards him. He was chosen as a general for the ill-fated expedition to Sicily, much to Nikias's dismay. The Athenians hoped his daring would balance Nikias's caution. Despite Nikias's attempts to stop the expedition, Alkibiades pushed it forward. The departure was marked by unsettling omens, including the festival of Adonis (associated with mourning) and the widespread mutilation of the Herms, which fueled public fear and suspicion of a conspiracy. Following the disaster in Sicily, Alkibiades's fortunes shifted again. He fled to Sparta and advised them, causing many Ionian cities to revolt from Athens. However, he made enemies there too, particularly King Agis, and eventually the Spartans ordered his execution. Seeking refuge, he allied himself with the Persian satrap Tissaphernes, influencing his policy. Seeing that the Athenians regretted their actions against him, and fearing the Spartans if Athens was destroyed, Alkibiades began communicating with the Athenian forces at Samos, which was their main base. He offered hopes of bringing Tissaphernes to the Athenian side, but only if the nobility would overthrow the democracy. This proposal led to the establishment of the oligarchic government of the Four Hundred in Athens. However, the Four Hundred didn't trust Alkibiades and weren't effective leaders. The fleet at Samos was outraged by the oligarchy and wanted to sail to Athens to suppress it. Alkibiades, now elected general by the forces at Samos, crucially prevented them from doing this, realizing it would leave their empire vulnerable. The sources credit him alone with saving the Athenian empire at this critical juncture by restraining the popular impulse. This highlights the complex role of leadership, sometimes requiring a leader to go against the immediate desires of the people they lead. After the Four Hundred were overthrown, the Athenians wanted Alkibiades to return. But he felt he needed to achieve a victory first. He gained some successes, but ultimately, accusations led to his downfall again. His enemies, including Thrasybulus (a former ally), accused him of negligence and excessive living while on campaign. The Athenians elected new generals to replace him. Exiled once more, Alkibiades continued to operate independently. He even warned the Athenian generals at Aegospotamoi about the danger of their position and their lack of discipline, but they ignored him. His end came violently, reportedly ordered by the Spartan Lysander at the urging of Kritias and the Spartan home government. Throughout these narratives, we see the constant struggle for power, the influence of strong personalities, the shifting allegiances of the people, and the challenges inherent in maintaining a democracy and an empire. Athenian politics, as depicted here, were a vibrant, often chaotic, arena where personal ambition, strategic genius, and popular will constantly interacted. Thinking about these stories, you might ask: - How did the different leaders' styles (Solon's reluctance, Themistokles' ambition, Perikles' controlled gravitas, Alkibiades' charisma and cunning) shape the state differently? - To what extent did the needs of empire conflict with the ideals of democracy in Athens? - How effective was ostracism as a political tool? Did it protect the democracy or simply remove inconvenient figures? - Could Athens have avoided the Peloponnesian War, or was it an inevitable result of its growing power and alliances?