This guide, "Marcus Aurelius: A Guide for the Perplexed," sets out to make the Roman emperor and philosopher Marcus Aurelius more understandable and engaging for readers today. It explores his life, his influences, and the persistent philosophical themes found in his personal writings. #### Who Was Marcus Aurelius? Let's start with the main character! Marcus Aurelius was a truly fascinating figure from the ancient world. From a historian's viewpoint, he's significant because he was the very last of the emperors often referred to as the "five good emperors" of the Roman Empire. These rulers governed from 96 to 180 CE, a time often thought of as a golden age. Marcus himself lived from 121 to 180 CE and was emperor from 161 to 180 CE. For anyone interested in philosophy, Marcus stands out as the only full-fledged philosopher who also happened to be a king. He was the last of the great Stoic philosophers of antiquity whose writings have survived for us to read. Unlike some, these later Stoics—like Seneca, Musonius Rufus, Epictetus, and Marcus—didn't just write about Stoicism; they genuinely tried to live by its principles. For the last 19 years of his life, Marcus lived by Stoic ideals while also facing the tremendous responsibility of ruling the vast Roman Empire, which stretched across continents and encompassed millions of people of diverse ethnicities. The sources suggest he felt this burden heavily, being a principled, serious man of duty. #### About His Famous Book: The "Memoranda" You might know his book by its most popular English title, _Meditations_. However, the author of this guide prefers to call it the _Memoranda_. Why the different name? Well, there's no evidence that Marcus himself gave his collection of philosophical notes any title at all. "Meditations" might lead you to expect something like Descartes' reflections or spiritual exercises, which isn't quite what Marcus wrote. The term "Memoranda," meaning notes or reminders, seems to capture the nature of the work better. It suggests the miscellaneous character of his notes and their function as reminders for himself – repeated injunctions to remember lessons learned and what to do or not do. The author of this guide uses "Memoranda" throughout for these reasons. The _Memoranda_ isn't a perfectly structured treatise, but rather a collection of personal notes divided into twelve books. It seems Marcus didn't intend for anyone else to read them. #### Marcus's Journey to the Throne and Philosophy Marcus's life was shaped by significant adoptions and influential mentors. Born Marcus Annius Verus in 121 CE, he had a distinguished family background. His early education was conducted at home by tutors, which his great-grandfather ensured he had good ones, even liberally spending money on them. His elementary lessons included Latin reading, writing, and arithmetic, as well as Greek language and literature. Several teachers played key roles. Diognetus was perhaps the first to spark his interest in philosophy as a way of life around age eleven. Marcus quickly embraced the austere "Greek regimen" of a philosopher, adopting the dress and enduring hardships, like sleeping on the ground (though his mother insisted on a bed with skins). Hadrian, the emperor at the time, noticed Marcus's seriousness and dedication, even giving him the nickname "Verissimus," meaning "truest". Later, his teachers included grammatici like Alexander of Cotiaeum, who emphasized focusing on content rather than fancy style, a trait seen in Marcus's own writing. But the philosophical influences were particularly strong. Apollonius of Chalcedon, a prominent Stoic, was introduced to Marcus and became a regular teacher, greatly impacting the young man's life. Marcus credited Apollonius with teaching him freedom, reliability, and how to remain the same in difficult circumstances like pain or losing a child. Another critical influence was Quintus Junius Rusticus, a Roman Stoic and later prefect of Rome. Rusticus steered Marcus away from excessive rhetoric and fancy language towards practical philosophy. Crucially, Rusticus lent Marcus his personal copy of Epictetus's _Discourses_, which profoundly influenced Marcus's own philosophy in the _Memoranda_. His path also involved joining priestly colleges like the Salii at a young age, showing special favor from Hadrian. Marcus took these duties seriously and was seen as dedicated, even experiencing an event with his crown falling onto a statue of Mars that was later interpreted as an omen of his future rule. His family life also saw changes. Hadrian arranged for Marcus's betrothal to Ceionia Fabia when he was around fifteen. However, after the death of the intended successor, Lucius Ceionius Commodus, Hadrian chose Marcus's maternal uncle, Aurelius Antoninus, as his heir, on the condition that Antoninus adopt both Lucius Aelius Caesar's son (Lucius Commodus) and Marcus. This adoption dramatically changed Marcus's life, moving him into the imperial family, a prospect he was reportedly appalled by, due to the perceived "evils that the imperial power contained in itself". He reluctantly moved to Hadrian's private house. Marcus reluctantly agreed to dissolve his betrothal to Ceionia Fabia and instead become engaged to Antoninus's daughter, Faustina, who was much younger. This marriage to Faustina (II) eventually took place when Marcus was 22 and Faustina was old enough. Marcus was grateful for her, describing her as obedient, affectionate, and humble. Marcus's adoptive father, Antoninus Pius, had a huge influence on him. Marcus greatly admired Pius's compassion, diligence, impartiality, tact, constancy, equanimity, and more. Pius ensured Marcus was prepared for ruling, giving him responsibilities and requiring him to live in the imperial palace, despite Marcus's preference for a simpler life. Marcus saw that it was possible to live well and uphold dignity in a palace, even without pomp and luxury, and still perform the necessary duties of a ruler. #### Emperor Marcus: Challenges and Stoic Resolve When Antoninus Pius died in 161 CE, Marcus was hesitant to accept the full responsibility of ruling the empire, aligning with Plato's idea that philosophers are the least willing to rule but are best suited for it. He accepted only on the condition that his adoptive brother, Lucius Commodus, receive equal powers, honoring Hadrian's original intention. Thus, Rome had two emperors for the first time, though Marcus held greater authority. Their reign was marked by challenges from the start. A major flood of the Tiber River caused destruction and famine. They faced war with the Parthians, sending Lucius east, though Lucius seemed more interested in leisure and entertainment than military matters, in stark contrast to Marcus's Stoic inclinations. Marcus, back in Italy, struggled with anxiety about the distant war and worked diligently on judicial business. Another major challenge was the Antonine Plague, which devastated the empire. This plague claimed the lives of many, including military leaders. The co-emperors traveled north to the frontier to deal with Germanic tribes threatening invasion. It was during their return journey in the winter of 168–169 CE that Lucius died suddenly from a stroke. Marcus was then the sole emperor. Marcus's reign was a period of immense pressure, forcing a philosophically inclined man to confront difficult realities, including military campaigns. He is seen as a conscientious emperor, though not a flawless one. Sources suggest he struggled with various ailments himself, possibly including a chronic ulcer and later illnesses. He may have used opium-laced theriac prescribed by his physician Galen, which could have contributed to sleepiness or affected his state of mind. Despite the immense pressures, Marcus strove to apply his philosophical principles to his rule and his life. #### Key Influences: Heraclitus and Epictetus The _Guide for the Perplexed_ highlights two figures who profoundly shaped Marcus's thinking: the ancient Greek philosopher Heraclitus and the Stoic teacher Epictetus. **Heraclitus** (c. 535–c. 475 BCE) was a revered source of wisdom for the Stoics, including Marcus. Marcus explicitly mentions and quotes him, grouping him with other wise figures like Pythagoras and Socrates. Heraclitus's ideas resonate in Marcus's concepts of the **logos** (the divine law or universal principle governing nature), the interconnectedness of all things (cosmic holism), the harmony of opposites, and the cycles of change, birth, and death. Heraclitus's idea that all human laws are nourished by a divine one deeply influenced Marcus's view of the universal logos as an eternal, divine principle. Marcus saw this logos as dictating beginnings and endings, knowing no evil, and harming nothing. To grieve, be angry, or fear what happens is, from this perspective, to be a "fugitive from the law of nature". Marcus also echoes Heraclitus's praise for intellectual acumen and truthfulness. Heraclitus's contrasting ideas of **sleeping and waking** also appear in the _Memoranda_. Heraclitus saw many people as "sleepwalkers," deaf to the universal logos and ignorant of its meaning, even when awake. Sleep was seen as a kind of death, isolating one from the shared reality revealed by the logos. Marcus was determined not to be one of these sleepwalkers. He composed his _Memoranda_ as reminders to live mindfully and wakefully, resisting the tendency for nightly sleep to erase the lessons learned the previous day. He even reinterprets Heraclitus's idea that "those who sleep are also hard at work," seeing even those oblivious to the logos as unintentionally collaborating in the cosmic project, though Marcus chooses to belong to the group that contributes consciously. Marcus's morning reminders often involve urging himself to get up and work, recognizing that cooperating with others is the defining characteristic of a human being, in contrast to non-rational animals that merely sleep. This reflects a determination to overcome the inertia of sleep and be alert to the reality of the logos. He also uses Heraclitus's ideas about change and transformation to maintain equanimity, seeing death and decay as part of the natural cycle, like leaves falling or grain being reaped. He even tells himself to treat everything around him as a "dream" upon waking, meaning that physical things are transient and not as important as the excellences of the mind. **Epictetus** (c. 55–c. 135 CE), a former slave who became a prominent Stoic teacher, was a more direct influence. Marcus learned about Epictetus through his teacher Rusticus, who lent him a copy of the _Discourses_. The urgent, forceful style of Epictetus's teachings deeply impacted Marcus. Both Epictetus and Marcus greatly admired **Socrates** as a moral hero, seeing him as a model of wisdom, temperance, and having a mind of his own. Marcus references stories and sayings attributed to Socrates that likely came from Epictetus. Epictetus's teachings are conspicuously present in the _Memoranda_, with Marcus explicitly mentioning him and quoting or paraphrasing sections of the _Discourses_, particularly in Book XI. Key Epictetan ideas adopted by Marcus include: - The concept that "every soul is deprived of the truth against its will". - The famous advice, attributed to Epictetus, to whisper to yourself that your child may die as you kiss them goodnight, as a way to prepare for loss and see it as natural. - The distinction between things that are "up to us" (our judgments, impulses, desires, aversions) and things that are not (external events, health, reputation, death). - The idea that "It is not things themselves that disturb people, but their judgments about those things". Marcus emphasizes that distress about external events comes from within, from our own perceptions. - A negative view of the **body** as transient and inferior to the mind or soul. Epictetus called the body a "paltry body" or even a "corpse," and Marcus echoes this sentiment, describing the body in stark terms (mess of blood, bones, nerves, etc.) and seeing death as liberation from its demands. - The interconnectedness of knowing the nature of the world, human purpose, and one's own identity. Both agree that ignorance of these things leads to wrongdoing. - The idea that **wrongdoing harms the wrongdoer**. Epictetus taught that he who wrongs me, wrongs himself, and Marcus repeats this principle. - The thought that you truly "meet a person" by understanding their judgments and revealing your own. Marcus writes, "Enter into the mind of everyone, and let them enter into yours". - The use of **plain, unvarnished analysis**. Epictetus advised stripping things down to what they really are (e.g., a dish is just a dish, a wife/child is a mortal human being) to avoid being distraught when they break or die. Marcus adopts this method, urging himself to break down things into their component parts, examine their nature, purpose, and duration to see them clearly. - The military analogy for duty. Epictetus saw individuals as soldiers assigned a task by God, who is the commanding officer, and Marcus also uses this analogy, seeing himself as a soldier at his post, awaiting recall (death). Despite the influence of these profound thinkers, Marcus also grappled with practical life, sometimes expressing weariness with the burdens of daily maintenance and the "cacophony" of life. #### Core Philosophical Ideas in the Memoranda The _Memoranda_ might seem like scattered notes, but they revolve around systematic, interconnected ideas. **Understanding Wholes and Parts:** Marcus often uses **mereology**, the study of parts and wholes, as an analytical method. He breaks things down to understand their nature, purpose, and value. When analyzing a person, he sees them as composed of flesh, spirit (breath), and intelligence. The flesh and spirit are seen as temporary components "on loan" from the cosmos, while intelligence is special because it can understand the cosmos and act appropriately. Marcus also applies this thinking to the cosmos itself, seeing it as a single, unified whole (cosmic holism). He views himself as a part of various wholes – Rome, the empire, the planet, the universe. A key principle for Marcus is that what benefits the individual (the part) is what benefits the whole (the community or cosmos). Conversely, what harms the whole harms the part. He also believes that whatever happens to an individual is ultimately for the good of the whole world and for the good of others. **Focusing on the Present Moment:** Marcus has a particular perspective on **time**. He sees the past as something to draw lessons from for the present, but urges himself to let go of regretting or wishing it were different. The future, he believes, is out of our control and should be entrusted to Providence; his logos (reason) provides the resources to handle whatever comes, so there's no need to worry about it. True focus, Marcus believes, should be on the **present moment**, as it's the only opportunity to exercise virtue and live well. He urges himself not to postpone striving for goodness and to concentrate on doing what is under his control _now_. Accepting the present moment is seen as a divine gift that allows one to see everything that happens as part of a beneficial cosmic plan. **Virtues are the Only True Goods:** Marcus applies a clear method for evaluating things: understand their nature, substance, source, purpose, and duration. By doing this, he concludes that many things people commonly value – wealth, luxury, fame, high office, physical pleasures – are ultimately "cheap, fleeting trash" or "junk". These things are external and transient. Following Stoic doctrine, Marcus asserts that the only true goods are the **virtues** of character. These include fairness, self-control, courage, free will, wisdom, justice, kindness, modesty, humility, straightforwardness, honesty, prudence, piety, magnanimity, and freedom. These virtues, unlike external things, are always available to us and are entirely under our control. Marcus argues that virtues are beautiful and sufficient in themselves, like an emerald or gold, and are not improved or diminished by external praise or contempt. His task, as a rational human being and citizen of the universe, is to be good. He sees his "profession" as goodness, achieved through correct thought about the world and human nature. **The Task of Philosophy:** Philosophy, for Marcus, is the essential tool for understanding the world, analyzing things, and most importantly, for cultivating the virtues and achieving goodness. He sees its task as modest and straightforward. Philosophy instills modesty, straightforwardness, and humility. It helps one understand nature's demands and act accordingly, with kindness and humility. It also protects against the vices that come with power, such as arrogance and megalomania. Marcus sees philosophy not just as instruction, but as a kind of therapy, like an ointment for the eyes, healing a kind of mental blindness to reality. Striving for virtue is central to human nature, and philosophy helps us pursue this. **Character and Goodness as a Job:** Marcus views perfecting his character as his primary job. He urges himself to stop talking about being a good man and just _be_ one. Goodness, for him, involves being content with what nature assigns and being just and kind. Protecting one's mind and its capacity for virtue is key to avoiding disappointment, fear, and desire. He writes that unstained character and unselfish acts are the only true rewards of our existence that time cannot trivialize. **Reverence and Justice:** Marcus strongly connects **reverence** (respect for the divine) with **justice**. He argues that acting unjustly is a form of blasphemy, a revolt against nature and disrespect for the divine. Following Socrates and the Stoics, he sees injustice as doing harm to oneself. Failure to be indifferent to things like pleasure and pain, life and death, which Providence decrees nature is indifferent to, is also seen as defying Providence and thus unjust and blasphemous. **Dealing with Others:** While Marcus often notes the failings of those around him, he also recognizes the importance of others. He finds encouragement in the virtues he sees in people, seeing it as a shower of positive examples that aid his own moral progress. He expresses gratitude to the individuals who served as models and teachers in his life. His concern for the well-being of other people is evident; he is indifferent to material "junk" but not to humanity, recognizing that people exist for one another. Marcus used various ways to remind himself of these principles, sometimes using careful arguments, and at other times employing vivid metaphors like the "self-cleaning spring" of goodness within the soul or the "all-consuming fire" (not detailed in the provided text, but mentioned). The spring image symbolizes the ever-available source of goodness accessed by digging within and keeping oneself clean with virtues and indifference to externals. #### Marcus's Legacy Marcus Aurelius was seen as a good role model by later figures, including Constantine the Great, the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity, who incorporated panels from a monument of Marcus into his arch, suggesting continuity with great emperors of the past. His philosophical legacy continued through figures like the Earl of Shaftesbury, Henry More, and significantly, Francis Hutcheson, who drew upon Marcus's ideas about universal happiness, a moral sense, and piety as social concern. Hutcheson even defended Marcus against charges of persecuting Christians. Adam Smith, a student of Hutcheson, was also influenced, though he found Marcus's acceptance of all events difficult. Marcus's work continued to be translated and appreciated, influencing writers and even modern political figures who have read his book. Ultimately, Marcus wrote his _Memoranda_ not for fame or external recognition, but for himself, as an exercise in personal philosophical development, consolation, and therapy. It reflects his earnest and mighty striving to achieve the Stoic ideal of a rational, sound soul characterized by self-perception, self-examination, and virtues like affection, truthfulness, and humility. --- ### Ideas and Questions for Further Exploration: - **The Role of Philosophy in Daily Life:** How can Marcus's view of philosophy as a kind of therapy or a tool for living a virtuous life be applied today? What does it mean to make philosophy your "own," as Marcus learned from Diognetus? - **Balancing Idealism and Reality:** Marcus was a philosopher-king, tasked with ruling a messy, complex empire. How did he balance his Stoic ideals (like equanimity, indifference to externals, focus on inner virtue) with the practical demands and unavoidable suffering of his role? The source mentions he wasn't the perfect Stoic sage. What might that look like in practice? - **The Influence of Grief and Loss:** Marcus experienced the deaths of many children, his sister, and his mother. The sources mention his Stoic teacher Apollonius taught him to reject grief as irrational. How do you see this struggle between natural human feelings and Stoic doctrine playing out in his writings and life, based on the source information? - **Understanding "Indifferents":** Marcus saw external things like wealth, fame, and even health as "indifferents" compared to virtue. While not bad in themselves, they shouldn't be pursued at the expense of virtue. How does this concept challenge modern values? What are some things we treat as essential goods that Marcus might call "junk"? - **The Present Moment:** Marcus urged himself to focus entirely on the present moment for cultivating virtue. What techniques might he have used to train his mind to stay in the present and avoid dwelling on the past or future? How difficult is this in our own lives? - **Living with Others:** Despite his focus on internal character, Marcus emphasized cooperation and saw people as existing for one another. How did he navigate the challenges of dealing with difficult people, even those who criticized him? What can we learn from his approach to others?