From the very get-go, we learn that the word "Israel" is incredibly rich in meaning. It starts as the name given to the biblical patriarch Jacob after he wrestled with a divine being. This powerful image of "struggling with, contends with, prevails over the divine" is captured in the very name "Israel". And this struggle seems to set the stage for the entire history of Jewish thought! "Israel" isn't just Jacob; it refers to his descendants, the "children of Israel," who become a people. It refers to the land where they first emerged and had sovereignty, known as the "Land of Israel". And, of course, it's the name of the modern state founded in 1948. The book suggests that Judaism, the religion of Israel, has long mirrored this idea of wrestling with God. The core of the book, as introduced, is exploring what Jewish thinkers have said about this complex of ideas. It's not aiming to cover _everything_ – that would be impossible! – but rather to introduce you to some interesting, even provocative, ideas from famous and perhaps less well-known thinkers. One thing you'll notice right away is that these thinkers don't always agree!. This tradition of disagreement is deeply rooted in Jewish culture, perhaps going all the way back to Jacob's sons not always getting along, and certainly evident in the ancient Talmud, a central text for many Jews that records countless disputes. The idea is that when people are sincerely seeking truth, even opposing views can be "words of the living God". This shows that discerning truth, especially about divine matters, is far from easy or straightforward. The disagreements also became sharper in the modern era, especially with the rise of political Zionism, forcing Jews to confront questions about their identity, religion, and collective future. Indeed, asking two Jews might get you at least three opinions, and this book samples seventy-two thinkers to prove the point!. The book seems structured historically, starting with early thinkers influenced by classical Greek philosophy. Philo of Alexandria (c. 20 BCE–c. 50 CE) is presented as a key starting point because he was one of the first major Jewish thinkers to grapple with reconciling Jewish scriptures with Greek philosophy. This very question – how to integrate Jewish teachings with philosophical ideas – becomes a major theme extending all the way to the modern period. Part I, covering thinkers from Philo to Ibn Daud (c. 20 BCE–1180 CE), explores questions like proving God's existence philosophically, understanding God's nature and attributes (and potential contradictions like unity vs. multiple attributes), the nature of creation (was it in time or eternal?), fitting scriptural ideas into Greek metaphysical categories (like form and matter), the relationship between God and Israel (people and land), the concept of the "chosen people," and even some pushback against the whole idea of philosophical reflection on God. Philo, for instance, saw the cosmos as being in perfect harmony with the Law, suggesting that observing religious laws aligns one's behavior with the same natural principles governing the universe. He also viewed Abraham's journey as symbolic of separating from the physical world to focus on spiritual ascent. Ibn Gabirol's wisdom poetry likewise suggested the goal is to transcend the body through knowledge of the divine. Bachya Ibn Paquda emphasized that external religious actions ("duties of the limbs") are insufficient without genuine inner devotion and sincerity ("duties of the heart"), serving God for His sake, not personal gain. Abraham Bar Chiyya felt both scripture and philosophical reasoning (following Aristotle's ideas of matter and form) could demonstrate the soul's immortality. Joseph Ibn Tzaddik thought the rational soul, destined for the spiritual world, must use reason to acquire knowledge, first of the physical world, then the spiritual, and finally God, suppressing bodily desires. Judah Halevi (c. 1075–1141) is presented as a thinker who emphasized that Judaism isn't based on philosophy but on historical events, like the revelation at Mount Sinai. He argued that prophecy is a supernatural communication from God, not just a philosophical state of intellect, and has been restricted to the children of Israel, who were chosen for the mission of spreading divine light. Halevi believed God seeks specific religious and ethical practices, available through prophetic revelation, not just good intentions or reasoning. Abraham Ibn Ezra (1089–1164) discussed why the Ten Commandments start with God mentioning the exodus from Egypt rather than creation. He noted that the exodus was a direct, personal experience for the Israelites, securing their knowledge of God, especially for the masses, whereas the knowledge of God as creator is more available to the philosophically astute. He also highlighted that the exodus emphasizes Israel's specific obligations to God and that commandments are for their good, leading to justice and righteousness. Abraham Ibn Daud (1110–80), on the other hand, felt Judaism had a philosophical foundation, seeing biblical commandments as reflecting wisdom that aligns with Aristotelian principles discovered by other nations through intellectual work. The book then moves into Part II, focusing on the era influenced heavily by Maimonides (1138–1204). He was such a pivotal figure that thinking after him often involved responding to his ideas. Maimonides is known for his attempt to reconcile Jewish tradition with Aristotelian philosophy, dealing with issues like interpreting the Bible, the nature of God's attributes and unity, creation, prophecy, miracles, and the purpose of divine commandments (mitzvot). However, he also believed that deep philosophical truths about religion are not for everyone; like feeding meat to an infant, giving philosophical arguments to the unprepared can be dangerous, leading to confusion or skepticism. Certain basic truths (God is one, nonphysical, eternal, etc.) should be taught to all, but deeper philosophical secrets should be restricted. Maimonides also famously approached the issue of speaking about God's attributes, suggesting that seemingly positive statements in scripture (like God 'sees') must be interpreted philosophically because God is nonphysical. Some interpret his approach as primarily making "negative" statements about God (saying what God is _not_). This period also saw pushback against Maimonides' rationalism, like the Karaite movement emphasizing the written Torah over rabbinic interpretation and philosophy, and the rise of Kabbalah, Jewish mysticism, which often resisted the overly intellectual approach, emphasizing love of God and spiritual activities over philosophical contemplation. Kabbalistic ideas, as discussed in the excerpts, present a different cosmic view. Moses De Leon (likely author of the Zohar) depicted a turbulent cosmos where God battles dark forces and _needs_ human participation. He saw the Torah as filled with deeper, mystical meaning, a blueprint of creation written in divine Hebrew, where human actions can have supernatural consequences and align with God's will. Even human sex, under appropriate circumstances, can have cosmic significance. This tradition described ten stages (sefirot) through which the infinite God reveals aspects of Himself and creates the cosmos, with humans connected to these upper levels despite being embodied in the physical world, the tenth stage. Abraham Abulafia (1240–c. 1292) offered a different kind of "prophetic Kabbalah," focusing on individual psychological perfection rather than cosmic battles. He saw his approach as a fulfillment of Maimonides' philosophy and sought techniques to achieve spiritual states, even drawing from outside Judaism. Abulafia viewed the sefirot not as aspects of God's essence (which risks violating God's unity) but as created conduits for God's influence. He believed acquiring knowledge of sefirot meant acquiring self-knowledge, overcoming the obstacle of the physical body and imagination through techniques like meditating on and manipulating the letters of God's names in Hebrew. This could lead to spiritual perfection and redemption, understood psychologically as freedom from the body and intellectual immortality. Other thinkers of this period also engaged with the debates spurred by Maimonides. Isaac Albalag (late 13th century) suggested that scripture serves the common people by teaching them simple truths in understandable language, using metaphors like physical descriptions of God or bodily punishment/delight. Isaac Pollegar (d. c. 1330) defended human freedom against deterministic arguments, arguing our actions are not predetermined. Joseph Ibn Kaspi (1279–1331) advocated for a literal, minimalist approach to the Bible, cautioning against allegorical interpretations that inject philosophy where it doesn't belong. Levi Ben Gerson (Gersonides) (1288–1344) challenged Maimonides' views on God's attributes and knowledge, arguing that our language can meaningfully apply to God despite the gap between divine and ordinary things. Gersonides also famously argued that God's perfect foreknowledge _is_ incompatible with human freedom and thus must be rejected. Aaron Ben Elijah of Nicomedia (c. 1328–69), a Karaite thinker, criticized Maimonides for relying on the assumption of an eternal cosmos to prove God's existence and for his theory of negative attributes, arguing that the Torah readily speaks of God's positive attributes. Moses Ben Joshua of Narbonne (d. c. 1362) offered his own take on foreknowledge and freedom, suggesting that while causal factors exist, they don't necessitate actions, leaving room for free will. Chasdai Ben Judah Crescas (c. 1340–1410/11) offered several interesting perspectives. He argued that the essence of Judaism is not knowledge of God, but love and worship of God through observing commandments, which he saw as the true path to immortality. He also contended that even an eternal cosmos would require God to create and continuously keep it in existence. Crescas tackled the problem of foreknowledge and freedom head-on, arguing that God, existing outside of time, "sees" future free actions like we see present ones, and this foreknowledge doesn't negate freedom or moral responsibility. Joseph Albo (1380–1444) sought to simplify Judaism, proposing just three basic principles: God's existence, reward and punishment, and revelation, deeming other debates secondary. Abraham Bivach (mid-15th century) argued that knowledge based on faith is superior to rational knowledge, being more accessible and reliable than philosophical inquiry, and that voluntary faith based on performing commandments deserves reward. Isaac Abravanel (1437–1508) rejected attempts to distill Judaism into a few principles, insisting on full commitment to the "entire package" of commandments and believing the "chosenness" of Israel comes from their choice to commit to God. He also pushed back against naturalistic interpretations of biblical miracles, arguing they are supernatural events. Moving into the modern era (Part III and IV introductions), the Jewish God Question takes on dramatically new forms. The focus shifts from reconciling Jewish beliefs with Western philosophy to reconciling Judaism and the Jewish people with the modern age. Questions arise about the feasibility of belief in God, the role of religion in a rational or enlightened society, how Jews can fit into broader societies while remaining Jewish, whether the Jewish person can be separated from the Jewish religion or people from the Land of Israel, and whether Jews should assimilate or return to their homeland. Moses Mendelssohn (1729–86) is presented as a key figure here, arguing that an observant Jew could be a full citizen. He advocated for a separation of state and religion and argued that what was revealed at Sinai was not doctrines but legislation, focusing on actions ("You shall do") rather than beliefs ("You shall believe"). Saul Ascher (1767–1822) challenged Mendelssohn, arguing that if the Law was just legislation for a state that no longer exists (after the destruction of the Second Temple), or merely taught historical truths already known, then it has ceased to be essential. He felt Judaism should be reformulated into a religion of _belief_, focusing on eternal truths about God, with the Law serving merely as a means to an end. Samuel David Luzzatto (1800–65) criticized the focus on rationalism, arguing that the essence of Judaism is compassion and mercy, qualities he saw lacking in philosophers like Maimonides. Abraham Geiger (1810–74) and Samuel Holdheim (1806–60) are figures associated with Reform Judaism, advocating for changes to Judaism to integrate into modern society. Geiger saw Judaism evolving organically over time. Holdheim believed Judaism's mission was universal, not particular, seeking to merge Jewry into contemporary national frameworks and radically reforming practices for this end. Samson Raphael Hirsch (1808–88) represented modern Orthodoxy, advocating for actively engaging with modern culture and knowledge while remaining fully committed to traditional Jewish Law (halacha). He criticized Reform efforts that abandoned the oral Law and the eternal status of halacha. The rise of political Zionism, initiated by Theodor Herzl (1860–1904) with his call for a Jewish state as the solution to antisemitism, is a major theme of Part IV. This movement itself generated new "Jewish God Questions," such as whether Jews should rely on human efforts or wait for divine intervention for redemption and the ingathering of exiles. Zvi Hirsch Kalischer (1795–1874) argued for human effort in settling the Land of Israel as the first phase of redemption, a challenging endeavor that demonstrates faith. Leon Pinsker (1821–91) likewise stressed Jewish "auto-emancipation," taking their fate into their own hands. Ahad Ha’am (1856–1927) advocated for a cultural Zionism, focusing on the "problem of Jewishness"—preserving Jewish identity and spirit amidst assimilation—rather than just the political problem of the Jews. He emphasized renewing attention to Jewish history and prophetic values. Micha Josef Berdichevsky (1865–1921) challenged Ahad Ha'am, arguing that after centuries dominated by religion, it was time for the Jewish people to prioritize themselves and create a new Jewish culture, urging Jews to become "the first Hebrew" rather than the "last Jew". Shalom Dov Baer Schneersohn (1860–1920) rejected Zionism on religious grounds, believing redemption would only come through the messiah's miraculous intervention, not human efforts. Other modern and contemporary thinkers discussed grapple with the core ideas. Hermann Cohen (1842–1918) saw the essence of Judaism in universal ethical truths. Franz Rosenzweig (1886–1929) rejected philosophies that reduced Judaism to mere ideas or ethics, emphasizing the importance of the Jewish people and their religious experiences of an actively involved God and ongoing revelation. Martin Buber (1878–1965) stressed that God is found not as an abstract problem but in direct, personal relationships, the "I-Thou" encounter. Mordecai Kaplan (1881–1983), founder of Reconstructionist Judaism, saw Judaism as an evolving religious civilization. He believed modern Jews must reconstruct Judaism, reinterpreting traditional ideas like God, commandment, and chosenness to be accessible to the modern mind, seeing "God" as the force motivating moral ends and "chosenness" as Israel's dedication to the "God-idea". Joseph Soloveitchik (1903–93) offered complex views on halachic man and partnership with God. Leo Strauss (1899–1973) highlighted the tension between reason and revelation, traditional life and modern life, and saw Maimonides' emphasis on Law (rather than doctrine) as a way to anchor the Jewish community and provide room for philosophy within tradition, while also suggesting Maimonides wrote esoterically to protect the Law from those unsuited for philosophy. Emmanuel Levinas (1906–95) argued that ethics is more fundamental than knowledge, seeing Jewish rituals as ways to step back, feel shame, and recognize obligations to the Other, viewing the State of Israel as an opportunity to fulfill social laws and ethics on a grand scale. Abraham Joshua Heschel (1907–72) emphasized religious _experience_, particularly the experience of God's _concern_ for humanity, as the heart of authentic religious practice, contrasting the engaged God of scripture with the distant philosophical God. Eliezer Berkovits (1908–92) also focused on the personal encounter with the divine as foundational, even in the post-Holocaust world, arguing that God's hiddenness is necessary for human freedom. Yeshayahu Leibowitz (1903–94) sharply distinguished between "anthropocentric" (human-centered) and "theocentric" (God-centered) religion, insisting Judaism is the latter, focusing on serving God for God's sake through Torah and mitzvot, not for human needs or salvation. Hans Jonas (1903–93) grappled with the problem of evil after the Holocaust, suggesting God limited His own power, allowing evil to exist, to make room for creation and freedom. More recent discussions include feminist Judaism, with thinkers like Judith Plaskow (b. 1947) exploring how Judaism might be re-envisioned to reflect the experiences of all Jews, including women. Michael Wyschogrod (1928–2015) sought to free Judaism from external philosophical influences like Maimonides' rejection of anthropomorphism, emphasizing God's unique, preferential love for the Jewish people as the means through which He loves all humanity. Eugene Borowitz (1924–2016) proposed a "covenant theology" for American Jews, balancing individual autonomy with commitment to the Jewish community and recognizing values as rooted in God, the ultimate ground of values. Rachel Adler (b. 1943) discussed how halacha can be reclaimed and transformed using a "jurisgenerative" mode of law that builds on tradition while aiming for a more ideal future. Tamar Ross (b. 1938) offered an Orthodox feminist perspective, arguing that changes must occur through accepted procedures within Orthodoxy and that even the idea of revelation acknowledges human input and interpretation. Finally, Samuel Lebens (b. 1983), in the Afterword, reflects on the enduring threads of "encounter" (with God and thinkers) and "objective truth" in Jewish thought, expressing concern about their future in academic settings and some contemporary trends, while suggesting new philosophical tools might help address old problems, like the Kabbalistic sefirot. He notes that Jewish thought, like Torah, can be seen as an "expanding palace," evolving over time. Overall, "The Jewish God Question" presents a dynamic, often contentious, but always deeply engaged conversation among Jewish thinkers across millennia about the fundamental questions of existence, faith, identity, and the relationship between the divine and the human. It shows that wrestling with God isn't just ancient history; it's a continuous, evolving process for the Jewish people. **Further Ideas and Questions to Explore:** - How do the different understandings of "revelation" (as law, as encounter, as doctrine) shape the various approaches to the "Jewish God Question"? - How does the concept of "chosenness" evolve across these thinkers, from a unique spiritual gift to a vocational calling, or a commitment made by the people themselves? - Explore the ongoing tension between universalism (Judaism's message for all humanity) and particularism (the unique identity and obligations of the Jewish people). - Consider how historical events, like the destruction of the Second Temple, emancipation, the Holocaust, and the founding of the State of Israel, have dramatically reshaped the "Jewish God Question." - Delve deeper into the different interpretations of the relationship between philosophy/reason and religion/faith throughout the book's historical periods. - How do views on the body, soul, and physical world influence thinkers' ideas about human perfection and the ultimate goal of religious life? - Investigate the different approaches to interpreting Jewish texts, from literalism to philosophical allegory to mystical or naturalistic readings. - How do contemporary challenges, such as egalitarianism and postmodernism, continue to push the boundaries of Jewish thought?