This volume offers a collection of David Hume's significant writings on moral and political philosophy, primarily featuring his _Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals_ (often called his second Enquiry) and a selection of his most important political essays, augmented by interpretive essays from contemporary scholars. It's designed to present a complete picture of Hume's mature views on these subjects, especially for those encountering his work for the first time. Hume holds a fascinating, slightly paradoxical spot in intellectual history. While widely recognized as a major philosopher, some scholars feel his social, moral, and political ideas haven't always received the attention they deserve, particularly in political theory circles. Part of the challenge in engaging with Hume's full moral and political thought is that it isn't contained in a single work. His ambitious first book, _A Treatise of Human Nature_ (1739–40), laid the philosophical groundwork, including theories of knowledge, the mind (imagination), emotions (passions, sympathy), and morality. However, the _Treatise_ was long, dense, and contained bold, sometimes provocative claims, which limited its initial success. Hume later refined and republished his ideas in works like the second Enquiry and his essays, striving for accessibility and broad engagement while retaining the core philosophical principles. These later works reflect decades of effort and revision on Hume's part. This collection helps navigate Hume's thought by presenting these more accessible later works. The interpretive essays provide valuable context, covering the historical setting and reception of Hume's writings, delving into his moral psychology, his blend of empirical and normative analysis in politics, and the surprising connections between his philosophy and modern decision/game theory. **Key Areas Explored in Hume's Moral and Political Philosophy:** 1. **The Foundation of Moral Judgment: Sentiment and Reason:** - One of Hume's most striking ideas, particularly in the _Treatise_, is the assertion that moral judgments stem from sentiment rather than reason alone. The sources explain this involves his view that reason, by itself, is "inert" in producing action or moral judgment; the driving forces are passion and sentiment. - However, it's not a simple either/or. Hume clarifies, especially in the Enquiry, that reason and sentiment "concur in almost all moral determinations and conclusions". Reason informs us about facts, including the potential consequences of actions, but the ultimate moral assessment (praise or censure) comes from the sentiments these facts evoke. - This view has led to significant discussion, including debates about the "Humean theory of motivation" and whether beliefs derived from reason can _indirectly_ motivate by connecting to existing desires or sentiments. - **Further Idea to Explore:** How do reason and sentiment interact in our own moral decision-making? Can you identify moments where sentiment seems primary, and others where reason plays a crucial informing role? 2. **The 'Is-Ought' Gap:** - A famous, though briefly stated, observation by Hume, often called "Hume's Law," is that one cannot logically infer conclusions about what "ought" to be the case from statements about what "is" the case. - While the precise interpretation of this point is debated, some readings connect it to his sentimentalism. If moral judgments are based on feelings (secondary qualities like colors, per Hume's analogy), then a description of the world based purely on primary facts (like shapes or sizes) wouldn't, on its own, yield a moral conclusion. You need the sentiment, the "perception of reflection," to bridge the gap. - This idea has had a deep impact on debates about moral naturalism (whether morality can be based on natural facts) and non-naturalism. - **Further Idea to Explore:** Consider a moral rule you follow (e.g., "You ought not to lie"). Can you identify the factual statements ("is") that might relate to this rule (e.g., "Lying causes distress") and see if the "ought" somehow arises directly from those facts alone, or if something like a sentiment (e.g., disapproval of causing distress) seems necessary? 3. **Understanding Virtues:** - Hume classifies virtues based on whether they are "useful or agreeable," either to the person possessing the virtue or to others. This focus on consequences and the pleasure/approval they evoke is central. - His approach contrasts with theories based on divine command, natural law, or duty for duty's sake. It also leads him to reject what he terms "monkish virtues" (like asceticism or self-denial) if they don't produce any worldly benefit or pleasure. A virtue, for Hume, must do some good in the world. - While the _Treatise_ sharply distinguished between "natural" virtues (like benevolence, spontaneously approved) and "artificial" virtues (like justice, dependent on conventions), the Enquiry tends to blend these, emphasizing their shared characteristic of being useful. - **Further Idea to Explore:** Think about traits or actions we commonly consider virtues today (e.g., honesty, courage, kindness). How well do these fit Hume's categories of "useful" or "agreeable" to oneself or others? Are there any that seem virtuous regardless of their consequences or whether they evoke a pleasant sentiment? 4. **Justice, Convention, and Cooperation:** - Hume's account of justice is a particularly original aspect of his thought. He views justice not as deriving from divine will or abstract reason, but as an "artificial" virtue dependent on human "conventions" or practices. - These conventions, like rules governing property, emerge gradually over time through trial and error, not explicit agreement, in specific circumstances – notably, moderate scarcity of resources and limited benevolence among people. If resources were abundant or people universally generous, rules of justice wouldn't be necessary. - The point of these conventions is public utility – they facilitate cooperation and coordination in society, increasing the general welfare. The specific content of justice rules can vary across times and places, but their function remains the same: enabling social life. - Hume's analysis of how individuals coordinate their actions and abide by conventions, even without explicit promises, has been seen as a precursor to modern game theory and rational choice theory. He explores how individual rationality can align with following conventional rules, even if a single instance of breaking the rule might seem beneficial in the short term (e.g., the "Sensible Knave" scenario). The benefit of maintaining a good reputation and inner peace often outweighs the short-term gain from dishonesty. - **Further Idea to Explore:** Consider a convention in your own life (e.g., driving on a certain side of the road, queuing in line). Does Hume's account of gradual emergence, mutual expectation, and utility help explain why these conventions exist and why people follow them, even without explicit rules or agreements? 5. **The Role of Government and Political Obligation:** - While cooperation and justice can exist without a state, Hume argues that as societies grow large and complex, government becomes necessary to enforce the rules of justice and ensure people act in their long-term interest by upholding their obligations. - Importantly, Hume rejects the idea that government is founded on a "social contract" or the explicit consent of the governed. He observes that most governments arise from usurpation or conquest, and people obey out of habit, tradition, and the understanding that government is essential for public good (utility). - Like the duty to keep promises, the "duty of allegiance" (obedience to government) is grounded in public utility – the understanding that government, by enforcing justice, makes social cooperation possible and beneficial. - Hume's view contrasts with thinkers like Locke, who saw natural law limiting state power, especially regarding property. For Hume, once the state exists, it can modify and specify the rules of justice, and its functions expand to include public works and defense. - **Further Idea to Explore:** Reflect on why people obey laws and governments today. Does Hume's emphasis on utility, habit, and tradition ring true? Are there situations where obedience seems to stem more from explicit agreement or a sense of moral duty independent of consequences? 6. **Hume's Political Science and Realist Modernism:** - Hume aimed to create a "science of man" based on "experience and observation," applying this method to politics. He sought to understand political phenomena empirically and identify causal relationships, though he acknowledged the complexities and limitations of such a science in politics and history. - His essays often blend empirical analysis with normative judgments and policy recommendations. Advocacy for certain arrangements is tied to empirical assessments of feasibility and predicted consequences, as well as moral sentiments. - Specific applications of his "science" include analyzing "national characters" based on moral/political causes rather than physical ones, examining the causes and effects of different forms of government (constitutionalism, mixed government, representative institutions), explaining institutions like the liberty of the press by reference to Britain's mixed constitution, and analyzing economic topics like commerce and public credit. - Hume was generally supportive of the emerging "commercial society" of his time, seeing it as promoting industry, wealth, refinement, and political freedom. His political thought reflects a "modernist" perspective, endorsing institutions like representative government in large states, in contrast to nostalgic views of small, virtuous republics. - While appreciating ideal models for the insights they offer into institutional design, Hume's approach is primarily realistic, focusing on understanding existing practices and institutions and advocating for practical improvements rather than radical, utopian change based on altering human nature. - **Further Idea to Explore:** How does Hume's blend of empirical observation and normative judgment compare to how political or social issues are discussed today? Do we still see arguments that move from describing how things _are_ to suggesting how they _ought_ to be, and what role do facts and values play in that transition? **Hume's Enduring Influence and Varied Interpretations:** The sources emphasize that Hume's work has had a profound and multifaceted impact, inspiring diverse and sometimes conflicting schools of thought. He influenced figures in the Scottish Enlightenment like Adam Smith (though Smith also critiqued him) and Adam Ferguson, as well as later thinkers like Jeremy Bentham (utilitarianism) and James Madison (republicanism, constitutionalism). His ideas on motivation, sentimentalism, the is-ought distinction, virtue theory, and the analysis of conventions and cooperation continue to be debated and developed in contemporary philosophy and social science. The richness and complexity of his thought allow for varied interpretations – as a skeptic, a naturalist, a liberal, a conservative, a virtue theorist, a proto-game theorist, and more. This ongoing engagement, more than 250 years later, speaks volumes about the depth and significance of Hume's contributions.