Satishchandra Chatterjee's "An Introduction to Indian Philosophy" focuses on the Vaiśeṣika and Jaina systems, along with aspects of Nyāya, Sāṅkhya, and Yoga, drawing out their core doctrines, metaphysical views, and epistemological approaches. **I. Overarching Themes and Foundational Concepts:** - **Religion and the Conservation of Values:** Indian philosophical systems, even those without a explicit belief in God (like Jainism and Buddhism), are considered religions based on the concept of "belief in the conservation of values." This belief in an "eternal moral order" fosters optimism and emphasizes free will and personal effort (puruṣakāra) in overcoming negative consequences. The theory of karma is presented not as fatalism but as the force of past actions (daiva or pūrvajanma-kṛtaṁ karma) which can be counteracted by present efforts. - "A distinguished Danish philosopher, Harald Höffding, defines religion as 'the belief in the conservation of values'.10 It is mainly such belief that raises Indian systems like Jainism and Buddhism to the status of religion in spite of the absence of a belief in God." - "It is again this faith in 'an eternal moral order,' which inspires optimism and makes man the master of his own destiny. It enables the Indian thinker to take the present evil as the consequence of his own action, and hope for a better future by improving himself now." - "Fatalism or determinism is, therefore, a misrepresentation of the theory of karma. Fate or destiny (daiva) is nothing but the collective force of one's own actions performed in the past lives (pūrvajanma-kṛtaṁ karma). It can be overcome by efforts of this life, if they are sufficiently strong..." - **Liberation (Moksha/Apavarga):** A common goal across many of these systems is the liberation of the individual self from suffering. The Vaiśeṣika system explicitly states this as its end goal. **II. The Vaiśeṣika System:** - **Founder and Alliance:** Founded by sage Kaṇāda (Ulūka), the Vaiśeṣika system is closely allied with the Nyāya system. - **Categories (Padārtha):** The Vaiśeṣika system classifies all objects of knowledge into seven categories: 1. **Substance (dravya):** The substratum of qualities and activities. There are nine kinds: earth, water, fire, air, ether (ākāśa), time, space, soul, and mind (manas). 2. **Quality (guna):** Attributes residing in substances. Twenty-four kinds are listed, including color, taste, smell, touch, sound, number, magnitude, distinctness, conjunction, disjunction, remoteness, nearness, cognition, pleasure, pain, desire, aversion, effort, heaviness, fluidity, viscidity, tendency (saṁskāra), merit (dharma), and demerit (adharma). 3. **Action (karma):** Motion or movement residing in substances. 4. **Generality (sāmānya):** Universals or common properties present in multiple individuals (e.g., "cow-ness"). Universals can be highest, lowest, or intermediate based on their scope. 5. **Particularity (viśeṣa):** The ground of ultimate differences in eternal substances like atoms, space, time, soul, and mind. This category is unique to the Vaiśeṣika system and gives it its name. 6. **The Relation of Inherence (sāmavāya):** The inseparable relation between a substance and its qualities or actions, a whole and its parts, a universal and its individuals, or a particularity and its eternal substance. 7. **Non-existence (abhāva):** All negative facts. It is of four kinds: prior non-existence (prāgabhāva), non-existence after destruction (dhvaṁsābhāva), absolute non-existence (atyantābhāva), and mutual non-existence (anyonyābhāva). - "It brings all objects of knowledge, i.e. the whole world, under the seven categories of substance (dravya), quality (guna), action (karma), generality (sāmānya), particularity (viśeṣa), the relation of inherence (sāmavāya), and non-existence (abhāva)." - "Particularity (viśeṣa) is the ground of the ultimate differences of things.... It is the special treatment of this category of viśeṣa that explains the name 'Vaiśeṣika' given to this system of philosophy." - "Abhāva or non-existence is of two kinds, namely, saṁsargābhāva and anyonyābhāva.... Saṁsargābhāva is of three kinds, namely, prāgabhāva, dhvaṁsābhāva and atyantābhāva." - **Atomic Theory:** The Vaiśeṣika system proposes that the physical world (earth, water, fire, air) is composed of eternal, invisible, and indestructible atoms (paramāṇu). These atoms are different in kind, each having a peculiar quality (smell for earth, taste for water, color for fire, touch for air). Unlike Western materialistic atomism, Vaiśeṣika atomism is teleological, with the combination and decomposition of atoms directed by God's will according to the law of karma. - "The first four are composed of the four kinds of atoms (of earth, water, fire and air) which are invisible and indestructible particles of matter." - "The ultimate source of their actions is to be found in the will of God, who directs their operations according to the law of karma. The atoms are made to compose a world that befits the unseen moral deserts (adṛṣṭa) of individual souls and serves the purpose of moral dispensation. This is the atomic theory of the Vaiśeṣikas." - "The atomic theory of the Vaiśeṣika, however, is a phase of their spiritual philosophy." - **Substances beyond the Physical:** In addition to the four types of atoms, ākāśa (ether), space, time, soul, and mind are also eternal substances. Ākāśa, space, and time are one, eternal, and all-pervading. Mind (manas) is an eternal, atomic substance, the internal sense. The soul (ātmā) is an eternal, all-pervading substance that is the substratum of consciousness. - "Ākāśa, space and time are imperceptible substances, each of which is one, eternal and all-pervading." - "The mind (manas) is an eternal substance which is not all-pervading, but infinitely small like an atom." - "The soul is an eternal and all-pervading substance which is the substratum of the phenomena of consciousness." - **God in Vaiśeṣika:** God is inferred as the creator of the world, creating out of eternal atoms according to the law of karma. God is the first efficient cause and a moral governor, ensuring that the world serves the purpose of moral dispensation for individual souls. - "The supreme soul or God is inferred as the creator of the world of effects. God creates the world out of eternal atoms." - "The atomic theory of the Vaiśeṣika... is also an advance on the materialistic theory that all things including life, mind and consciousness are transformations and mechanical products of material atoms. The Vaiśeṣikas harmonise the atomic theory with the moral and spiritual outlook of life and the theistic faith in God as the creator and moral governor of the world." **III. The Jaina System:** - **Core Teachings:** Jainism emphasizes belief in the "conservation of values" and an "eternal moral order." The fundamental teachings of the Jinas are accepted by both major sects. - **Sects (Śvetāmbara and Digambara):** While sharing core philosophical doctrines, the Śvetāmbaras and Digambaras differ in details of faith and practice, particularly regarding ascetic rigor and the status of women and perfected saints. - "In course of time the followers of Jainism were divided into two sects well known now as the Śvetāmbaras and the Digambaras." - "The difference between them lies, however, not so much in the basic philosophical doctrines as in some minor details of faith and practice." - **Process of Perception:** The Jainas outline a four-stage process of ordinary perception: 1. **Avagraha:** Distinct sensation (grasping the object). 2. **Īhā:** Questioning state of mind (query). 3. **Āvāya:** Definite judgment (removal of doubt). 4. **Dhāraṇā:** Retention in the mind. - "The Jainas give an account of the process by which ordinary perception takes place and is retained." - **Anekāntavāda (Theory of Many-sidedness):** The universe is considered to have innumerable characters. Different philosophical systems describe different aspects of this many-sided reality. They err when they claim their view is the only absolute truth. - "The various systems of philosophy which give different accounts of the universe similarly occupy different points of view and discover the different aspects of the many-sided universe. They quarrel because they do not bear in mind that each account is true only from its own standpoint..." - "The Jainas hold that every object known by us has innumerable characters (ananta-dharmakam vastu)." - **Syādvāda (Theory of Conditional Predication):** To reflect the many-sided nature of reality and the limited perspective of human judgment, every judgment should be qualified by the word "syāt" (somehow or in some respect). This emphasizes the conditional or relative character of judgments and the possibility of other alternative judgments. Syādvāda is not skepticism but an acknowledgment of the context-dependent validity of knowledge. - "In view of these facts, the Jainas insist that every judgment (naya) should be qualified by some word like 'somehow' (syāt, i.e., in some respect)..." - "The theory of the Jainas has come to be known as syādvāda. It is the view that every ordinary judgment (passed by imperfect minds like ours) holds good only of the particular aspect of the object judged and of the point of view from which the judgment is passed." - "...it should be noted that the Jaina is not a sceptic. It is not the uncertainty of a judgment, but its conditional or relative character, that is expressed by the addition of the qualifying particle 'syāt'." - **Saptabhaṅginaya (Seven Forms of Judgment):** Building on Syādvāda, Jaina logic identifies seven forms of conditional judgment to describe the complex nature of reality: 1. Somehow, S is P (syāt asti). 2. Somehow, S is not P (syāt nāsti). 3. Somehow, S is P, and is also not P (syāt asti ca, nāsti ca). 4. Somehow, S is indescribable (syāt avaktavyam). 5. Somehow, S is P, and is also indescribable (syāt asti ca, avaktavyaṁ ca). 6. Somehow, S is not P, and is also indescribable (syāt nāsti ca. avaktavyaṁ ca). 7. Somehow, S is P, and is also not P, and also indescribable (syāt asti ca, nāsti ca, avaktavyaṁ ca). - "Ordinarily, logic distinguishes two kinds of judgment, affirmative and negative. The Jainas distinguish seven kinds of judgment including these two." - "To sum up, Jaina logic recognises the following seven kinds of conditional judgment (saptabhaṅgīnaya)..." - **Reality (Sat):** Reality in Jainism consists of three factors: permanence, origination, and decay. A substance has permanence in its essence but undergoes origination and decay in its changing modes. This view rejects the Bauddha (Buddhist) view of momentariness (kṣaṇika-vāda), arguing that it cannot explain memory, recognition, personal identity, liberation, or moral life. - "Reality consists of three factors: permanence, origination, and decay." - "By accepting this criterion of reality, the Jainas reject the Baudha view that reality consists in causal efficiency... From this faulty criterion of reality, the Bauddhas deduce the theory of the momentariness of things, which, therefore, turns out to be fallacious." - **Substances in Jainism:** Jaina metaphysics recognizes several substances, including space and time, which are inferred as necessary conditions for extension, continuity, modification, and movement of other substances. They are considered instrumental conditions (apekṣākāraṇa). - "Substances which are extended can have extension only in some place, and that is called ākāśa..." - "The (kāla), as Umāsvāmī states, makes possible the continuity, modification, movement, newness and oldness of substances." - "Space, time, etc., come under the category of instrumental conditions, but they should be distinguished from ordinary conditions of that kind, being more indirect and passive than ordinary instrumental conditions." - **Ethical Vows (Ahimsā, Satya, Asteya, Brahmacarya, Aparigraha):** The Jaina system includes ethical disciplines as part of its path. The vows of non-violence (ahimsa), truthfulness (satya), non-stealing (asteya), self-indulgence (brahmacharya), and non-acceptance of unnecessary gifts (aparigraha) are highlighted. The Jaina interpretation of asteya connects the sanctity of property to the sanctity of life. Brahmacharya is understood as abstinence from self-indulgence in all forms, not just sexual. - "Asteyam: Abstinence from stealing... The sanctity of the property of others, like that of their lives, is recognised by the Jainas..." - "Brahmacaryam: Abstinence from self-indulgence—This vow is generally interpreted as that of celibacy. But the Jaina attaches to this also a deeper meaning that raises the standard of this vow far above mere sexual self-continence. It is interpreted as the vow to give up self-indulgence (kāma) of every form." **IV. Aspects of Nyāya Philosophy:** - **Scope:** Nyāya philosophy covers theory of knowledge, the physical world, the individual self and liberation, and God. It is structured around sixteen philosophical topics (padārtha). - "The whole of the Nyāya philosophy may be conveniently divided into four parts, namely, the theory of knowledge, the theory of the physical world, the theory of the individual self and its liberation, and the theory of God." - "It should, however, be observed here that the Nyāya system is in itself an elaboration of sixteen philosophical topics (padārtha)." - **Key Topics (Padārtha):** Brief explanations of some of the sixteen topics are provided, including doctrine (siddhānta), syllogism member (avayava), hypothetical argument (tarka), and certain knowledge (nirṇaya). - "Siddhānta or a doctrine is what is taught and accepted as true in a system or school." - "Avayava or a member of the syllogism is any of the five propositions in which syllogistic inference requires to be stated if it to prove or demonstrate a doctrine." - "Tarka or a hypothetical argument is an indirect way of justifying a certain conclusion by exposing the absurdity of its contradictory." - "Nirṇaya is certain knowledge about anything, attained by means of any of the legitimate methods of knowledge." - **Knowledge (Jñāna or Buddhi):** Knowledge is the manifestation of objects. It is divided into presentative (anubhava) and representative (smṛti). Valid presentative knowledge (pramā) includes perception, inference, comparison, and testimony. Non-valid presentative knowledge (apramā) includes doubt, error, and hypothetical argument. Valid knowledge is defined as definite, faithful, and non-reproductive experience. - "Knowledge or cognition (jñāna or buddhi) is the manifestation of objects." - "Valid presentative knowledge is called pramā. It is divided into perception, inference, comparison and testimony." - "Valid presentative knowledge (pramā) is a definite or certain (asandigdha), faithful or unerring (yathārtha), and non-reproductive experience (anubhava) of the object." - **Sense Organs:** Nyāya (and Vaiśeṣika, Mīmāṁsā, and Jaina) recognizes six organs of knowledge: five external senses (smell, taste, sight, touch, hearing) and one internal sense (mind or manas). The external senses are physical and constituted by the element whose quality they sense. The mind is the internal organ for perceiving qualities of the soul. - "According to the Nyāya (also the Vaiśeṣika Mīmāṁsā, and Jaina), there are six organs of knowledge. Of these, five are external and one is internal." - "Mind (manas) is the internal organ which perceives such qualities of the soul as desire (icchā), aversion (dveṣa), striving or willing (prayatna), pleasure (sukha), pain (duḥkha) and cognition." - **Extraordinary Perception (Alaukika):** Nyāya recognizes extraordinary perception in three kinds, including sāmānyalakṣaṇa, where a whole class of objects is perceived through the perception of its universal (sāmānya). - "Alaukika or extraordinary perception is of three kinds. The first is called sāmānyalakṣaṇa..." - "To perceive mahood is to perceive all men so far as they are possessed of the universal 'manhood'." - **Inference (Anumāna):** Inference is a key method of valid knowledge. It involves three terms: the subject under consideration (pakṣa), the object to be proved (sādhya), and the mark or reason (linga, hetu, or sādhana). The logical ground of inference is vyāpti, the invariable concomitance between the middle and major terms. Vyāpti is established through repeated observation and fortified by tarka (hypothetical argument), which exposes the absurdity of the contradictory. - "...inference, in Indian logic, contains three terms, namely, pakṣa, sādhya, and hetu." - "...vyāpti or invariable concomitance between the middle term and the major term, which is the logical ground of inference." - "To end this sceptical doubt, the Naiyāyikas try next to fortify the induction by tarka." - **Classification of Inference:** Inference is classified psychologically into inference for oneself (svārtha) and inference for others (parārtha). Parārtha inference is presented in a five-proposition syllogistic form. - "According to the first classification, inference is of two kinds, namely, svārtha and parārtha." - "This is illustrated when a man, having inferred or known the existence of fire in a hill, tries to convince another man who doubts or questions the truth of his knowledge, and argues like this: 'The hill must be fiery; because it smokes; and whatever is smoky is fiery e.g. the kitchen: so also the hill is smoky; therefore, it is fiery'." - **Fallacies of Inference (Hetvābhāsa):** Several fallacies of the middle term (hetu) are described, including the irregular middle (savyabhicāra), the contradictory middle (viruddha), the inferentially contradicted middle (satpratipakṣa), and the non-inferentially contradicted middle (bādhita). - "The third kind of fallacy is called satpratipakṣa or the inferentially contradicted middle." - "The last kind of fallacy is called bādhita or the non-inferentially contradicted middle." - **Testimony (Śabda):** Knowledge from testimony comes from understanding sentences spoken or written by authoritative persons. A sentence is a group of words (pada) arranged according to four conditions: 1. **Ākāṅkṣā (Expectancy):** Words mutually implying one another. 2. **Yogyatā (Fitness):** Absence of contradiction in the relation of objects denoted. 3. **Sannidhi/Āsatti (Juxtaposition/Proximity):** Words being continuous in time or space. 4. **Tātparya (Intended Meaning):** The meaning intended by the speaker or writer. - "Śabda or testimony, we have seen, gives us knowledge about certain things through the understanding of the meaning of sentences, either spoken or written by some authoritative person." - "The construction of an intelligible sentence must conform to four conditions. These are ākāṅkṣā, yogyatā, sannidhi and tātparya." - **Nyāya Theory of the Physical World:** Largely aligned with Vaiśeṣika, the Nyāya views the physical world as constituted by the four kinds of atoms (earth, water, fire, air) and includes ākāśa, space, and time as eternal and infinite substances that contain and interrelate physical things. Composite objects are products of atomic combination and are non-eternal. - "The Nyāya theory of the physical world, in respect of these and other connected subjects, is the same as that of the Vaiśeṣika." - "The physical world is constituted by the four physical substances of earth, water, fire and air. The ultimate constituents of these four substances are the eternal and unchanging atoms of earth, water, fire and air." - **The Self in Nyāya:** The individual self is distinct from the body, senses, and mind. While some old Naiyāyikas believed the self is known by testimony or inference, the existence of the self is inferred from phenomena like desire, aversion, volition, and feelings of pleasure and pain, which require a permanent self for explanation. - "How do we know that there is any self of the individual, which is distinct from his body, his senses and mind?" - "According to them, the self is known either from the testimony of spiritual authorities or by inference from the functions of desire, aversion and volition, the feelings of pleasure and pain, and the phenomenon of knowledge in us." - **God in Nyāya:** God is the ultimate cause of the world's creation, maintenance, and destruction. He creates out of eternal entities (atoms, space, time, ether, minds, and souls) and orders them according to the moral deserts of souls. God is the first efficient cause, preserver, and destroyer. He is one, infinite, eternal, omnipotent (guided by moral considerations), and omniscient, possessing eternal consciousness as an attribute. - "God is the ultimate cause of the creation, maintenance and destruction of the world." - "He does not create the world out of nothing, but out of eternal atoms, space, time, ether, minds (manas) and souls." - "He is one, infinite and eternal... He is omnipotent... He is omniscient insofar as He possesses the right knowledge of all things and events." **V. Aspects of Sāṅkhya Philosophy:** - **Name Origin:** The name 'Sāṅkhya' might derive from 'saṅkhyā' meaning number (due to enumeration of realities) or 'saṅkhyā' meaning perfect knowledge. - **Goal:** Like Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika, Sāṅkhya aims at knowledge of reality to end suffering. It seeks a pure metaphysical knowledge of the self. - **Dualistic Realism:** Sāṅkhya is a dualistic realist system, recognizing two ultimate realities: spirit (puruṣa) and matter (prakṛti). - "It is a metaphysic of dualistic realism. While the Nyāya and the Vaiśeṣika admit the ultimate reality of many entities—atoms, minds and souls—the Sāṅkhya recognises only two kinds of ultimate realities, namely, spirit and matter (purusa and prakṛti)." - **Prakṛti and the Guṇas:** Prakṛti is the eternal, unconscious principle and the ultimate cause of the world. It is constituted by three elements or constituents called guṇas: sattva, rajas, and tamas. These are not qualities but substantial elements. They are inferred from the qualities of pleasure, pain, and indifference in the world. - "Prakṛti is the ultimate cause of the world. It is an eternal unconscious principle (jada) which is always changing..." - "Sattva, rajas and tamas are three constituents of prakṛti which holds them together in a state of rest or equilibrium (sāmyāvasthā). The three are called guṇas. But they are not qualities or attributes in any sense." - "The existence of the guṇas is inferred from the qualties of pleasure, pain and indifference which we find in all the things of the world." - **Nature of the Guṇas:** Sattva is characterized by pleasure, lightness, and manifestation. Rajas is characterized by pain and activity. Tamas is characterized by indifference, heaviness, and passivity. They are always together, in conflict and cooperation, with the predominant guna determining the nature of things. - "Sattva is that element of prakṛti which is of the nature of pleasure, and is buoyant or light (laghu), and bright or illuminating (prakāśaka)." - "Rajas is of the nature of pain, and is exciting or active (upastambhaka), and moving." - "Tamas is of the nature of indifference, and is heavy or passive (guru), and is obstructing or enveloping." - Just as the oil, the wick and the flame, which are relatively opposed to one another, co-operate to produce the light of a lamp, so the guṇas co-operate to produce the objects of the world, although they possess different and opposed qualities." - **Transformation of Guṇas:** The guṇas are constantly changing. During dissolution (praḷaya), they change homogeneously (svarūpapariṇāma). During creation, they change heterogeneously (virūpa-pariṇāma) when one guna predominates. - "Change or transformation belongs to the very essence of the guṇas, and they cannot help changing even for a moment.'" - "Such transformation of the guṇas is called svarūpapariṇāma or change into the homogeneous." - "Such transformation is called virūpa-pariṇāma or change into the heterogeneous, and it is the starting-point of the world's evolution." - **Plurality of Selves (Puruṣa):** Sāṅkhya posits a plurality of eternal, intelligent selves, one associated with each body. This is argued based on the differences in birth, death, endowments, activity, and distinction among different beings. - "There is not... one universal self pervading all bodies alike. On the other hand, we must admit a plurality of selves, of which one is connected with each body." - **Evolution of Prakṛti:** The first product of prakṛti is mahat or buddhi (intellect). From buddhi arises ahaṅkāra (ego). From ahaṅkāra, the eleven organs (five senses of perception, five organs of action, and mind) and the five subtle elements (tanmātras) are derived. The mind (manas), ego (ahaṅkāra), and intellect (buddhi) are the three internal organs (antaḥkaraṇa). - "The first product of the evolution of prakṛti is mahat or buddhi." - "Ahaṅkāra or the ego is the second product of prakṛti, which arises directly out of mahat..." - "From the first arise the eleven organs... From the third... are derived the five subtle elements." - "The mind, the ego and the intellect (manas, ahaṅkāra and buddhi) are the three internal organs (antaḥkaraṇa)..." - **Sāṅkhya View of Manas:** Unlike Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika, Sāṅkhya views the manas as a composite product of prakṛti (not eternal or atomic) and believes it is possible to have multiple experiences simultaneously due to manas being made of parts. - "According to the Nyāya-Vaiśeṣikas, manas is an eternal atomic substance which has neither parts nor any simultaneous contact with many senses... For the Sāṅkhya, the manas is neither atomic nor eternal, but a composite product of prakṛti, and so subject to origin and destruction in time." - **Sāṅkhya Inference:** Sāṅkhya adopts a similar classification of inference as Nyāya, dividing it into vīta (affirmative) and avīta (negative), with vīta further divided into pūrvavat (based on observed uniformity) and sāmānyatodṛṣṭa (based on similarity). - "With regard to the classification of inference, the Sāṅkhya adopts the Nyāya view, although in a slightly different form." **VI. Aspects of Yoga Philosophy:** - **Founder and Alliance:** Founded by sage Patañjali, Yoga is closely allied with Sāṅkhya, accepting its epistemology and metaphysics but also admitting the existence of God. - "The sage Patañjali is the founder of the Yoga philosophy. The Yoga is closely allied to the Sāṅkhya... but admits also to the existence of God." - **Goal (Vivekajñāna and Liberation):** The special interest of Yoga is the practice of yoga as a means to attain discriminative knowledge (vivekajñāna), which is the condition for liberation. - "The special interest of this system is in the practice of yoga as the means to the attainment of vivekajñāna or discriminative knowledge which is held in the Sāṅkhya to be the essential condition of liberation." - **Yoga as Cessation of Mental Functions (Cittavṛttinirodha):** Yoga is defined as the cessation of all mental functions. - "According to it, yoga consists in the cessation of all mental functions (cittavṛttinirodha)." - **Levels of Mental Life (Cittabhūmi):** There are five levels of mental life: restless (kṣipta), torpid (mūḍha), distracted (vikṣipta), concentrated (ekāgra), and restrained (niruddha). Yoga is primarily practiced in the last two stages. - "There are five conditions or levels of the mental life(cittabhūmi)... kṣipta or restless, mūḍha or torpid, vikṣipta or distracted, ekāgra or concentrated, and niruddha or restrained." - **Citta (Mind/Mental Substance):** In Sāṅkhya-Yoga, the citta is the first product of prakṛti, essentially unconscious but appears conscious by reflecting the self's consciousness. The self knows objects through modifications of citta. - "But in its ignorance it confuses itself with citta. The citta is the first product of prakṛti... It is essentially unconscious; but being in the closest proximity to the self it reflects... the self's consciousness..." - **Samādhi (Trance):** Concentration (ekāgra) when permanent is called saṁprajñāta yoga or samādhi, a state of clear consciousness of the object. Restraint (niruddha) is asaṁprajñāta yoga or samādhi, where all mental modifications cease. Both lead to self-realization. - "In fact, ekāgra or the state of concentration, when permanently established, is called saṁprajñātayoga or the trance of meditation..." - "So also the state of niruddha is called asaṁprajñāta yoga or asaṁprajñāta samādhi, because all mental modifications being stopped in this state, nothing is known or thought of by the mind." - **Kinds of Saṁprajñāta Samādhi:** Four kinds are distinguished based on the object of contemplation: savitarka (gross physical object), savicāra (subtle elements), sānanda (senses), and sāsmita (ego-substance). - "Four kinds of asaṁprajñāta samādhi are distinguished according to the different objects of contemplation." - **Auxiliary Means to Yoga:** Disciplines include restraints (yama) like non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, control of passions, and non-acceptance of unnecessary gifts. Internal disciplines (antaranga-sādhana) directly related to samādhi are attention (dhāraṇā), meditation (dhyāna), and samādhi. - "The first discipline of yama or restraint consists in (a) ahirhsā or abstention from all kinds of injury to any life (b) satya or truthfulness in thought and speech, (c) asteya or non-stealing, (d) brahmacharya or control of the carnal desires and passions, and (e) aparigraha or non-acceptance of unnecessary gifts from other people." - "These disciplines are said to be internal to yoga (antaranga-sādhana), because they are directly related to some kind of samādhi or yoga. These are dhāranā, dhyāna and samādhi." - **God in Yoga:** God is the Supreme Person, distinct from individual selves, eternally free from defects (afflictions, karma, impressions). God is perfect, eternal, all-pervading, omnipotent, and omniscient. God's existence is supported by scripture and the argument from degrees of knowledge and power. - "According to the Yoga, God is the Supreme Person who is above all individual selves and is free from all defects." - "It is God and God alone who is eternally free from all defects." - "The existence of God is proved by the following arguments." **VII. Other Epistemological Concepts:** - **Postulation (Arthāpatti):** The necessary supposition of an unperceived fact that alone can explain a perceived phenomenon. This is used in daily life and language interpretation. It resembles a hypothesis but lacks the tentative character, being considered the only possible explanation. Mīmāṁsakas distinguish between postulation to explain perceived facts (dṛṣṭārthāpatti) and postulation to explain word meanings (srutārthāpatti). - "Pestulation (arthāpatti) is the necessary supposition of an unperceived fact which alone can explain a phenomenon that demands explanation." - "...arthāpatti resembles a hypotheisis as understood in Western logic.... What is known by arthāpatti is not simply hypothetically supposed or entertained, but is believed in as the only possible explanation." - **Intrinsic Validity (Svataḥprāmāṇya vāda):** According to the Mīmāṁsā school, the validity of knowledge arises from the very conditions that generate it (svataḥ utpadyate) and is also believed in as soon as the knowledge arises (svataḥ jñāyate ca), without requiring external verification. - "(a) The validity of knowledge arises from the very conditions that give rise to that knowledge, and not from any extra conditions (prāmāṇyam svataḥ utpadyate). (b) The validity of a knowledge is also believed in or known as soon as the knowledge arises; belief does not await the verification of the knowledge by some other knowledge, say, an inference (prāmāṇyam svataḥ jñāyate ca). This Mīmāṁsā view, in its double aspect, is known as the theory of intrinsic validity (svataḥprāmāṇya vāda)." **VIII. Aspects of Vedānta Philosophy:** - **Core Question:** The central question in Vedānta schools is the nature of the relation between the self (jīva) and God (Brahman). Different schools offer different answers, including dualism (dvaita), absolute monism (advaita), and qualified monism (viśiṣṭādvaita). - "The most common question on which the schools of the Vedānta are divided is: what is the nature of the relation between the self (jīva) and God (Brahman)?" - **Vedic Concept of God:** The Vedas are often described as polytheistic, but the practice of extolling each god as supreme when praised has led to the term "henotheism." However, the true interpretation depends on whether this is genuine belief or exaggeration. - "Belief in many gods is called polytheism. The Vedas are, therefore, often said to be polytheistic. But there is a peculiarity in Vedic thought that makes this view doubtful... Max Müller thinks, therefore, that polytheism is not an appropriate name for such a belief, and he coins a new word 'henotheism' to signify this." - **Brahman/Ātman/Sat:** Early texts use Brahman (God), Ātman (Self), and Sat (Being) interchangeably to refer to the ultimate Reality. Brahman and Ātman are explicitly stated as synonymous. - "The name given to this Reality is sometimes Brahman (God), sometimes Ātman (Self), sometimes Sat (Being)." - "Brahman and Ātman are used synonymously in these different contexts. We are also told explicitly in some places that 'This self is the Brahman' (Bṛhad., 2.5.19.), 'I am Brahman' (Ibid., 1.4.10.).11" - **Immanence and Transcendence:** God in Vedānta is both immanent (present in the world) and transcendent (beyond it). While often called pantheism, "panentheism" is preferred to signify that God is not just the totality of things but also something more. - "We have seen that God is conceived even as early as the Vedas in two aspects: God pervades the world, but He is not exhausted in the world, He is also beyond it. God is both immanent and transcendent." - "To avoid the ambiguity of the word 'pantheism' and to remind ourselves of the fact that God in Vedānta is not simply immanent, but also transcendent, we should call the Vedānta theory of God panentheism, rather than pantheism." - **Advaita Vedānta (Śaṅkara):** Advocates absolute identity between the self and God. The identity judgment "that thou art" (Tat tvam asi) is interpreted as asserting identity between the pure consciousness underlying man and the pure consciousness forming the essence of God, viewed apart from limiting conditions. The perceived difference between the self and God is illusory, caused by ignorance. - "Some others, like Śaṅkara, hold that the two are absolutely identical; this view is known as monism (advaita)." - "Between these two, complete identity exists and is taught by the Vedānta." - "Being identical with God, the soul is in reality what God also really is. It is the supreme Brahman—the self-luminous, infinite, consciousness. The soul appears as the limted, finite self because of its association with the body which is a product of ignorance." - **Qualified Monism (Viśiṣṭādvaita) (Rāmānuja):** Rāmānuja holds that God (Brahman) is the Absolute Reality containing two integral parts: unconscious matter (acit) and finite spirits (cit). God creates the world from subtle matter according to the souls' deeds. God is the only reality in the sense that nothing exists independently of Him, but He contains real multiplicity within Himself. This is "Unity (advaita) of Brahman possessed (viśiṣṭa) of real parts." - "Some others, like Rāmānuja, again hold that the two are related like part and whole; this view may be briefly called qualified monism (viśiṣtādvaita)." - "Rāmānuja holds that God, who is omnipotent, creates the manifold world out of Himself by a gracious act of will. Within the All-inclusive God (Brahman) there are both unconscious matter (acit) and the finite spirits (cit)." - "This monism of Rāmānuja is known, therefore, as Viśiṣṭādvaita which means the Unity (advaita) of Brahman possessed (viśiṣṭa) of real parts (the conscious and the unconscious)." - **Rāmānuja on Identity and Difference:** Rāmānuja believes Brahman is devoid of external distinctions (heterogeneous and homogeneous) but has internal distinctions (between conscious and unconscious substances within God). The "that thou art" dictum asserts identity between God with certain qualifications (creator, omniscient) and God existing as the embodied soul – identity of the same substance with different qualities. Rāmānuja is interpreted as holding to identity, difference, and identity-in-difference in different respects. - "Brahman is devoid of the two kinds of external distinctions (vijātīya and sajātīya)... But God is possessed of internal distinctions (svagata-bheda), as there are within Him different conscious and unconscious substances which can be mutually distinguished." - "The identity asserted here is, therefore, between God with certain qualification and God with certain other qualification—identity of the same substance though possessed of different qualities (viśiṣṭasya aikyam). Rāmānuja's philosophy is thus truly called Viśiṣṭādvaita or the identity of the qualified." - "It is reasonable to conclude then that according to Rāmānuja, in different respects, there are different kinds of relations between the self and God. Insofar as the self is finite and subject to imperfection... there is difference; insofar as the self is inseparable from God... there is identity... but as the self is a part of God, both identity and difference are tenable."