Imagine stories so deeply rooted in the earth itself – in the plants, animals, and the natural world – flowing with a rhythm very different from our fast-paced, modern lives. It's a wonderful way to explore a view of the universe where everything is interconnected and alive. **What Are These Legends All About? More Than Just Stories!** One of the most striking things about these legends is that they aren't just told for entertainment, education, or amusement; they are deeply believed. They are seen as a living religion, giving tangible form to beliefs and traditions that connect people living today with their ancestors from centuries and even millennia past. Think of it not just as a story you read or hear, but as a reality that is lived. These myths are intrinsically linked to nature. Mysterious power is believed to reside in natural features like mountains, rivers, rocks, and even pebbles. While some might see these as inanimate, to Native people, they are pulsating with life and considered potent with "medicine" or power. This connection is so strong that geography is often enmeshed with mythic events. For example, mountains in the Northwest were thought to have once been people who were transformed, often as a punishment. Rivers, lakes, waterfalls, and mountains can appear as living characters in stories. Even sacred objects like a pipe or a sun dance pole can be felt as alive, flowing with power. **A Different Rhythm: "Indian Time" vs. the Clock** Unlike many people today whose lives are dominated by clocks and fragmented by technology, Native American life, following the pace of "Indian time," remains deeply connected to the nurturing "womb of mythology". The rhythm of these stories reflects the natural world, moving at a pace distinct from our technological environment. For those used to European fairy tales with clear beginnings, middles, and ends, Indian legends might seem a bit different, perhaps even appearing chaotic or inconsistent. Plots might unfold at their own speed, sometimes without conventional structures. Characters, like Coyote, can shift dramatically from a powerful creator one moment to a "sniveling coward" the next. Unusual things happen, like infants displaying remarkable talents or powers, and births and deaths can alternate rapidly. Trying to apply conventional Western logic often doesn't work and isn't necessary. Sometimes, the whole point of telling a tale might be to focus on a single image or episode. Stories are often told in chains, with one word, character, or idea prompting another storyteller to add their contribution. Even the sounds of nature – the wind, a brook, a bird's cry – can suggest stories from which legends are created. These stories are shared by adults and children, appearing in solemn ceremonies as well as spontaneous tellings, and they often feel like incomplete episodes within a larger, ongoing tradition of a tribe. **Language and the Soul of Mythology** There's a profound connection between language and these myths. The idea that language is "thought incarnate" and mythology is "soul incarnate" suggests that mythology gives personality and independence to language. The very meaning of words becomes the essential idea. This means the word for "sun" can become the name of the sun god, and the word for "moon" the moon goddess. These ancient words are seen as having potency. As one Sioux medicine man explained, the modern language has been "white-manized" and lacks power; true knowledge comes from old tales, sounds, visions, herbs, and especially the ancient words of the grandfathers, the language that existed at the beginning of time. If that language dies, the legends might die too. When you encounter collections of these tales, you might find titles and categories, but these are really just tools for convenience. A child asking for a story wouldn't ask for "the first arrival of winter" but rather for a specific episode, like "Tell me again about Iktome getting caught when he steals food," or "Tell us about where the girl saved her brother". The ways to divide and categorize these stories are infinite, and they reveal both common elements across vast distances and a rich diversity of detail. **Legends Shaped by Life, Land, and Interaction** The legends naturally vary depending on a people's way of life, the geography and climate, and how they obtain food. Nomadic buffalo hunters of the Plains tell different stories than Eastern forest dwellers. For planting communities in the Southwest, the arrival of corn and the changing seasons are central concerns, while people in the Northwest who live from the sea fill their tales with ocean monsters and skilled harpooners. Many narratives explain features of the landscape – how a river formed, mountains were created, or coastlines were carved. But legends aren't isolated; they overlap and influence each other. This happens when different tribes live near one another, but also through migration and long-distance trade. Archeological findings show connections, like Mayan-style artifacts found in Arizona, indicating trade routes stretching over a thousand miles. Images and themes, such as an Aztec-like image of the sun found painted on rocks in the Southwest and in contemporary Pueblo art, were carried along with trade goods. Even mythical figures, like Nao'tsiti and Bahana of Hopi prophecy, might carry memories of figures from Central American cultures like the Mayan Kukulcan or the Aztec Quetzalcoatl. Ritual objects like white seashells, found far inland, also speak to these ancient connections. Despite regional differences, a common thread binds many tales: a universal concern with fundamental questions about the world. Across the continent, in countless forms, you encounter themes like the story of the children of the sun, twin brothers who bring culture, the sacred four directions, worlds piled on top of each other, primordial waters, perpetual destruction and re-creation, and powerful heroes and tricksters like Veeho, Rabbit, Coyote, and Spider Man. **Echoes of History in Myth** History, including major events and encounters, enters the mythic world, though often indirectly. Many tales embody a tribe's collective experience, sometimes condensing migrations, natural disasters, and other significant events spanning generations into a single dramatic myth. References to historical episodes, like the creation and fall of the Iroquois League, initial sightings and later conflicts with Europeans (missionaries, traders, soldiers), the suppression of religion and uprisings, displacement from homelands, and watershed encounters like those at Fort Stanwix or Wounded Knee, can be found transformed within myths. By placing these often "cataclysmic events" into the realm of myth, storytellers can simultaneously celebrate, mourn, and honor the past, and also look forward to a time when great heroes might return to bring strength and restore former glory. **How These Stories Were Gathered** The stories in the sources were collected in various ways. Some were gathered directly by the authors over twenty-five years, with some appearing in print for the first time. Others are new versions of circulating tales, narrated by contemporary storytellers and sometimes freshly translated. Some Plains Indian tales were noted down during gatherings like powwows, around campfires, or even in a moving car, with many being taped and some edited for clarity in print. A second group includes classic accounts in their original form, while a third comes from nineteenth-century sources that were sometimes embellished in the style of that period. The authors have retold these older versions to make them feel more authentic and less stiff. **Let's Talk Themes and Characters!** The myths explore fundamental questions about the human condition and the origins of the world. * **Creation:** These stories deal with how the physical world came into being and the origins of specific cultural features. They often depict a primordial watery environment from which earth is brought up. In some Southwest tales, multiple worlds exist stacked on top of each other, with people moving between them. The Iroquois creation myth involves a Sky Chief's daughter falling to a water-covered world, saved by water fowls and harbored by a great turtle, eventually giving birth to twins who represent creative and destructive forces. The theme of twin heroes, sometimes representing good and evil, recurs across the continent. * **Origin of Culture/Daily Life:** Legends explain where crucial elements like food (corn, buffalo), animals (buffalo, horse), religious items, and ceremonies came from. For example, the White Buffalo Woman brought the sacred pipe and taught the Sioux how to worship, marry, and cook, and provided buffalo herds. Sweet Medicine brought religion, social codes, political unity, and the sacred arrows to the Cheyenne, teaching them the right way to live. * **Human-Nature Connection:** A common belief reflected in these stories is that people are part of the natural world, related to plants, animals, and even the smallest creatures. Prayers often end with "all my relations," encompassing everything in the universe. Unlike the idea of humans mastering nature, these stories emphasize a close, familial relationship. * **Heroes and Monsters:** Heroes take center stage, often slaying monsters, ogres, witches, and demons. These heroes possess awesome talents, like shapeshifting or invisibility, often gaining power from spirits or through challenges. They have a comfortable relationship with the natural world, speaking with animals who offer aid or knowledge. European characters sometimes appear, seen as beings with special powers or gifts. The monsters themselves add vitality, appearing in varied shapes, including great water monsters, rolling heads, giants, and man-eating birds. * **Tricksters:** A truly fascinating type of character is the trickster. They are rebels, taboo breakers, and often wish-fulfillment figures. They can be both mischievous and heroic, sometimes bringing culture while also causing trouble. Coyote is the most prominent trickster across North America, though figures like Raven, Mink, Rabbit, Blue Jay, Old Man, Iktome (Spider Man), Veeho, Manabozho, and Whisky Jack also fill this role. Tricksters embody a core element of Indian philosophy: finding laughter amidst sadness, a necessary part of survival. * **Sun, Moon, and Stars:** Celestial bodies are seen as alive and endowed with human passions. The sun is often a male principle, a life-giver and father, though some tribes view the sun as female. The moon and stars can take human form, have lovers, and influence events. Legends explain celestial phenomena or the origin of constellations. * **Animals:** Animals are a constant, talkative presence. They are central to mythology and religion, possessing powerful "medicines". They act as creators, tricksters, and culture bringers, moving freely between animal and human forms and speaking to humans. While sacred, animals are also a vital food source, and hunting is surrounded by rituals and respect. * **Death and the Afterlife:** Tales explore the entry of death into the world and ideas about the afterlife. Conceptions of the afterlife vary greatly, from vague ideas of an end to elaborate death cults. Some tribes envision a spirit land similar to the living world, accessed through journeys that may involve trials. Encounters and exchanges between the living and the dead occur, though long-term coexistence isn't usually possible. Rituals, like leaving food for spirits or purifying after killing an enemy, maintain connections with the departed. Ghosts can be varied – sometimes troublesome, sometimes offering blessings or warnings. **Regional Flavors and Shared Threads** As mentioned, legends are tailored to the environment and lifestyle of a people. The stories of the Plains buffalo hunters, Eastern forest dwellers, Southwestern planters, and Northwest coastal people are distinct, featuring relevant animals, activities, and landscape features. However, certain common elements appear across the continent. The theme of primeval water covering the earth is widespread, found everywhere except among the Eskimo. Tales of a creature diving for mud to fashion the earth are common, except in the Southwest. The Southwest and California share stories of original world parents (Earth and Sky) and humans created from the creator's skin. Twin heroes and tricksters appear in many regions. There's a universal concern for the beginning of mankind and the foundation of the human world. **Historical Encounters and Lasting Belief** The arrival of Europeans ("the white man," often called Wasichu by the Sioux or Veeho by the Cheyenne) is a significant historical event that has left its mark on myths. Stories tell of this new nation approaching, like a trickster or a spider man, coming to run over everything, steal land, and bring a new faith. The devastating consequences, like the end of the buffalo for the Sioux, fundamentally changed ways of life. Yet, even amidst these changes, ancient deeds of valor in resistance became even more crucial for preserving identity on reservations. Crucially, these legends are not frozen in time. While old tales are retold, new ones are also born, often stemming from a medicine man's dreams or visions. These new legends can incorporate contemporary understandings alongside ancient traditions. The belief system remains dynamic, with core concepts like the interconnectedness of all things still central. Even a pebble or tiny insect is gathered up in the "sacred hoop" of existence. **Questions and Ideas for Further Exploration** Exploring these myths opens up so many avenues! Here are a few things you might wonder about or delve into further: * How do these legends influence contemporary Native American life, beliefs, and art today? * How have specific legends been reshaped or reinterpreted over time, especially in response to historical events or cultural contact? * What are the specific roles and characteristics of different trickster figures in various tribal traditions? How do they compare and contrast? * How do regional differences in geography, climate, and subsistence practices directly shape the content and themes of specific tribal mythologies? * What is the significance of specific animals (like the buffalo, coyote, raven, bear, or snake) in different tribal myths, and what does their "medicine" or power represent? * How do the creation myths from different regions compare, particularly regarding themes like primordial water, earth diving, twin heroes, or emergence from lower worlds? * How are rituals and ceremonies derived from or connected to the events and characters in these legends? * What can these myths tell us about the historical movements, interactions, and relationships between different Native American tribes? * How are concepts of death, the afterlife, and interaction with spirits portrayed, and how do these vary between tribes? * What is the role of women in these myths, both as cultural figures (like White Buffalo Woman, Corn Mother) and as heroes or central characters in stories of love, war, or origin?