This version of Aesop's fables, presented by Carlo Gébler and Gavin Weston, offers a fascinating perspective on these ancient stories, specifically curated and rewritten with an adult audience in mind. The authors selected 190 fables from Émile Chambry’s collection, choosing those that particularly "hurt the most". Their intention is that the morals attached to these fables should "darken, extend and amplify" the stories, rather than simply trivializing them. This approach invites readers to consider the fables in a perhaps less sanitised, more complex light than they might have encountered in childhood versions. ### What is a Fable? And What Makes an Aesop Fable Distinct? According to the source, a fable is broadly defined as a story not founded on fact. An Aesop fable adds a specific element: it's a story not based on fact that also comes with a moral attached. This combination presents an inherent challenge. When the story and the moral align well, it can lead to a satisfying "Oh yes..." moment for the reader. However, when they don't quite fit together harmoniously, it can cause a "Oh no..." moment of displeasure. The source quotes Keats, who, speaking of poetry, argued that we tend to dislike anything that has a "palpable design upon us". This argument is seen as applying to all literary forms, including Aesop's fables, where some readers, especially modern ones, have rejected them because the morals felt too obvious, insistent, or even "bumptious". Thinking about this further, one might explore the dynamic between narrative and explicit instruction. How does adding a moral change the reader's experience of a story? Do you find yourself agreeing with Keats about "palpable design"? ### The Figure of Aesop: History and Legend The actual historical existence of a person named Aesop, who is credited with writing these fables, is a contested topic. The theologian Martin Luther, for instance, believed Aesop was entirely a fiction. However, if one chooses to believe in a historical Aesop, the source suggests turning to an ancient Greek text known as the _Life of Aesop_. This text, likely composed around the first century A.D., seems to have incorporated material from older accounts of Aesop's life. According to this _Life of Aesop_, the figure was born sometime in the fifth century B.C.. His birthplace is stated in various places, including Thrace, Phrygia, Ethiopia, Samos, Athens, or Sardis. The text describes him as dark-skinned, suggesting his name might even come from "Aethiop," meaning Ethiopian. He is also depicted with numerous physical deformities: a swollen head, squinting eyes, a fat lip, a snub nose, short arms, a pot belly, a hunched back, flat feet, bandy legs, and a "dwarfish stature". Additionally, he had a severe speech impediment or was possibly mute. The _Life_ portrays Aesop as being born a slave or captured and enslaved early in life. At one point, perhaps as an adolescent or young adult, he shows kindness to a priestess of the goddess Isis. This act of kindness is rewarded with the gift of speech. His very first use of this new ability is to report his overseer to his master, denouncing him as a cruel bully who made the slaves' lives unbearable. The source points out that this early action is a sign of an antagonism towards power that would reappear later in his fables. This background raises interesting questions about identity, power dynamics, and the voice of the marginalised in ancient times. How might Aesop's described experiences as a slave and his physical appearance have shaped the themes and perspectives found in the fables attributed to him? ### Aesop's Journey and His Craft The _Life of Aesop_ continues by recounting his various experiences. Because he spoke out against the overseer, his master decided to sell him to prevent further rebelliousness among the slaves. He was taken to Ephesus but couldn't be sold due to his appearance and impairments. He was then shipped to the island of Samos for a second attempt. At the Samos market, a philosopher named Xanthus, whose historical existence is also unverified, was visibly repulsed by Aesop's appearance. Aesop's response was clever: he argued that a philosopher should value a person's mind over their body. Xanthus was impressed and perhaps chided, and he bought Aesop for his wife to serve as a manservant. While living in Xanthus's household, Aesop revealed himself to be shrewd, sarcastic, and a maverick capable of solving difficult problems through logic and reason. The source provides an example of this: the story where Xanthus consults Aesop about an omen involving crows before a journey. Aesop reports seeing two crows (a good omen), but Xanthus sees only one and aborts his trip. Furious, Xanthus orders Aesop to be whipped. However, Aesop uses the ensuing invitation to dinner (a good outcome for Xanthus following his "bad" omen) and the impending whipping (a bad outcome for Aesop following his "good" omen) to point out the inconsistency in Xanthus's belief in the omens. He argues that the omens must mean the reverse, making them meaningless, and this argument persuades Xanthus to cancel the beating. The source highlights this as an example of Aesop's method of demolishing certainties by ruthlessly exposing internal contradictions, a hallmark of his fables. After Xanthus, Aesop, still a slave, was passed to Iadmon, a Samian, who was also impressed and granted him freedom. Now at liberty, Aesop became an adviser, even helping the king of Babylon win a battle of wits. His employers valued his expertise, particularly his "narrative capacity". Instead of just making arguments, Aesop would tell "small, sharp fabular ones" and then interpret them using a moral addendum, connecting the story to the client's interests. The source notes these connections were often ingenious. The morals, at least when Aesop was presenting them, were described as "surprisingly local and particular" and "wonderfully clever". The source details the structure of these morals, explaining the three potential parts: - **Promythium:** An italicised sentence before the fable announcing what is coming (meaning "before-story"). - **Endomythium:** The understanding expressed by a character within the story, showing what they have grasped (meaning "inside-story"). - **Epimythium:** An italicised sentence after the fable summarising its message (meaning "after-story"). Not all fables have all three parts, but they typically have one or two addenda bridging the gap between the fiction and the present situation. An example provided is Aesop using the fable of the vixen caught in a gully with ticks to defend a demagogue on trial. The vixen refuses the hedgehog's offer to remove her old, nearly sated ticks, fearing they would be replaced by new, hungry, aggressive ones that would kill her. Aesop used this story to liken the islanders to the vixen and the demagogue to the old ticks, arguing that getting rid of him would only lead to something worse. Aesop's technique proved successful, winning arguments for clients, and his work became widely known because listeners were compelled to retell his fables, causing them to spread. This success made him one of the best-known individuals in the world of the fifth century B.C.. This journey from slave to famous adviser, utilising storytelling and sharp logic, offers a fascinating narrative in itself. One could ponder the power of narrative in ancient political and social contexts, and how someone without conventional power could wield such influence. ### The Fall and Legacy of Aesop The _Life of Aesop_ culminates in his downfall. He visits Delphi, disrespects the local aristocracy and the god Apollo. Described as always outspoken and ready to disparage vested interests, this behaviour wasn't surprising for him. The Delphians framed him by planting a gold cup in his luggage and accusing him of stealing from the oracle's temple, a capital crime. At his trial, Aesop defended himself using his fables. The source mentions "The Frog and the Mouse" (number 33 in this collection) as one such defence. In this fable, a frog and a mouse tied together drown, and their bodies are taken by a bird of prey. Aesop applied this to his situation, stating he was the mouse and the Delphians the frog; they were tied together, and if they killed him, they would die too because of their connection. However, the court wasn't persuaded. Aesop was found guilty and executed by being thrown from a cliff. Shortly after his death, Delphi suffered famine, pestilence, and war. The Oracle of Apollo revealed these troubles were a direct consequence of their unjust treatment and killing of Aesop. The oracle confirmed they were tied together after all, just like the mouse and the frog. To atone, the Delphians were instructed to make amends, leading to the city building a pyramid in Aesop's honour. This account of Aesop's life, particularly his dramatic death and posthumous vindication, adds another layer to his legend. It invites reflection on the relationship between truth-tellers and power, and the idea of divine retribution. ### Historical Mentions and the Shifting Purpose of Fables Historical records confirm that Aesop was referenced by other writers in the fifth century B.C.. The Greek historian Herodotus described him as a historical figure from Thrace who lived on Samos. The playwright Aristophanes, a near contemporary, referenced an Aesop fable in his play _The Birds_, implying his audience would be familiar with Aesop's work. The earliest surviving written collection of Aesop's fables is attributed to Phaedrus, a Thracian slave who gained freedom in Rome and produced his version around 15 B.C.. Phaedrus's collection introduced two notable changes: the fables were written in verse, and he omitted the "inside-story" moral (endomythium), relying only on the morals appended at the beginning and end. Many writers followed Phaedrus, often producing versions in verse. Crucially, Aesop's fables began attracting the attention of pedagogues. They saw the potential to use the fables for teaching grammar, rhetoric, and, most importantly, morality. This marked a significant change. In the ancient world, Aesop's fables were intended for adults, and their morals were often open to interpretation, allowing speakers to adapt them as needed. But as pedagogues took hold, the fables, which were once "playful and ambiguous," were remade into a tool for teaching "approved norms". This shift happened in English translations as well, notably by Caxton and culminating in Roger L'Estrange's 1692 translation, which explicitly stated its purpose was to initiate children into "Sense". The source notes that the idea of Aesop's fables being primarily a vehicle for shoehorning moral absolutes into the minds of the young has largely persisted since then. This historical shift in the use and interpretation of Aesop's fables is quite striking. It prompts us to consider how texts evolve over time and how their meaning can be shaped by the intentions of those who disseminate them. How does reading these fables as intended for adults, with potentially open morals, differ from encountering them as prescriptive lessons for children? ### Core Subjects and Critique in Gébler's Selection According to the source, Aesop's fables broadly deal with two main subjects: the exercise of power and the experience of the powerless. The powerful figures, often gods and goddesses, are frequently depicted as capricious, wilful, thoughtless, and unforgiving. In contrast, the powerless, including mortals and animals, tend to be portrayed as blind, deluded, foolish, and careless. While the discrepancy between these two groups can be a source of humour, it also forms the basis of Aesop's critique. The human world, as presented in these fables, is a place of "rough justice, deep hurt, epic cruelty and unstinting monstrousness". The authors suggest that the ancient literature, like Aesop's fables, feels particularly relevant in troubled times because it seems to speak to contemporary issues. They find a "bitter truth" lurking within the fables that feels absolutely "of the moment," reflecting ideas that rulers can be detached while subjects suffer, and that life is unfair, with justice being merely a fantasy. By presenting the fables with their "fabular integrity" intact (speaking animals, capricious gods, etc.), the authors hope readers will find the present reflected within them. They even suggest this experience might be "salutary" and potentially "catalyse resistance or focus opposition to the present moment and to modern times". This interpretation by the authors highlights the potential for ancient stories to resonate with modern concerns about power, injustice, and suffering. It's worth exploring how different fables within this collection illustrate these themes and whether their morals indeed darken or amplify this often bleak view of the world. ### Examples of Fables and Their Morals (as presented in the source) Let's look at a few examples from the source to see how these themes and structures appear. The **Prologue**, titled "The People and Their Pouches," is a story about Zeus creating humans. Zeus gives each person two pouches: one in front for seeing others' mistakes and one on their back for hiding their own mistakes. Zeus explains to Prometheus that this arrangement is deliberate, ensuring people focus on others' flaws, argue constantly, and thus never unite to challenge the gods' rule – a strategy Zeus believes will save the gods. The moral attached is "Meddling is the privilege of the powerful". This story immediately establishes the themes of divine capriciousness and the suffering of mortals orchestrated for the gods' amusement and self-interest. Another fable, "The Frogs Who Demanded a King," illustrates the dangers of discontent and poor choices. The frogs, living in anarchy, ask Zeus for a king. Zeus, annoyed, throws a tree stump into their pond, which frightens them initially. They then complain that the stump-king does nothing. Zeus, giving them what they "really" want, sends a water-serpent who eats them all. The moral: "The deepest hole is the one you dug". In "The Fox Who Lost His Tail," a fox caught in a trap loses his tail. Ashamed of his deformity, he tries to convince other foxes to cut off their tails too, claiming it's a better way to live. The other foxes see through his self-interested advice. The moral is "Wise counsel does not flow from self-interest". "Zeus and the Asses" depicts the wretched lives of abused donkeys who petition Zeus for relief from their burdens. Zeus, seeing them as beasts of burden created for carrying, initially refuses their request for freedom. However, the delegate ass, acting as a diplomat, proposes a cunning alternative: release from duty if they can produce a river of piss. The asses fail but keep trying, providing amusement for the gods. The moral: "Nothing will shake our belief in what we desire". These examples, among many others in the source, offer glimpses into the world portrayed in this collection – one where gods are often indifferent or malicious, and where mortals and animals frequently suffer due to their own folly, the actions of others, or the arbitrary exercise of power. The morals, as presented, often carry a sense of grim realism or sharp irony. Looking at specific fables and their morals in this collection could be a productive way to further explore the themes of power, folly, and injustice from the authors' selected perspective. ### Further Ideas to Explore Based on this introduction, there are several areas one might wish to delve into further: - **The Authors' Selection and Rewriting:** Consider the impact of selecting only the fables that "hurt the most". How might this shape the reader's overall impression compared to a more varied collection? How does the "new language" they used affect the tone and impact of the stories? - **The Role of the Morals:** Given the authors' aim to make the morals "darken, extend and amplify" the fables, analyse whether specific morals achieve this effect. Do they feel like simple summaries, or do they add layers of complexity or bleakness to the stories? - **Comparing Versions:** If familiar with other versions of Aesop, one could compare how specific fables or characters are portrayed here versus elsewhere, particularly in collections aimed at children. How do the morals differ, and what does this reveal about the intended message? - **Themes in Detail:** Each of the sections (Caprice, Arrogance, and the Exercise of Arbitrary Power; Self-Deception, Stupidity, and Idiocy; Selfishness, Self-Interest, and Self-Love; etc.) offers a thematic grouping. Exploring the fables within one of these sections could provide deeper insights into how the authors present these specific human (and divine) traits. - **Relevance to the Present:** The authors explicitly state their belief that these ancient fables are relevant to contemporary issues of power and suffering. One could analyse specific fables to see how they might resonate with modern political or social contexts.